Transfer of learning between 2D and 3D sources during infancy: Informing theory and practice

The ability to transfer learning across contexts is an adaptive skill that develops rapidly during early childhood. Learning from television is a specific instance of transfer of learning between a two-dimensional (2D) representation and a three-dimensional (3D) object. Understanding the conditions under which young children might accomplish this particular kind of transfer is important because by 2 years of age 90% of US children are viewing television on a daily basis. Recent research shows that children can imitate actions presented on television using the corresponding real-world objects, but this same research also shows that children learn less from television than they do from live demonstrations until they are at least 3 years old; termed the video deficit effect. At present, there is no coherent theory to account for the video deficit effect; how learning is disrupted by this change in context is poorly understood. The aims of the present review are: (1) to review the conditions under which children transfer learning between 2D images and 3D objects during early childhood and (2) to integrate developmental theories of memory processing into the transfer of learning from media literature using Hayne’s (2004) developmental representational flexibility account. The review will conclude that studies on the transfer of learning between 2D and 3D sources have important theoretical implications for general developmental theories of cognitive development, and in particular the development of a flexible representational system, as well as policy implications for early education regarding the potential use and limitations of media as effective teaching tools during early childhood.     

Applying cognitive training to target executive functions during early development

Developmental psychopathology is increasingly recognizing the importance of distinguishing causal processes (i.e., the mechanisms that cause a disease) from developmental outcomes (i.e., the symptoms of the disorder as it is eventually diagnosed). Targeting causal processes early in disordered development may be more effective than waiting until outcomes are established and then trying to reverse the pathogenic process. In this review, I evaluate evidence suggesting that neural and behavioral plasticity may be greatest at very early stages of development. I also describe correlational evidence suggesting that, across a number of conditions, early emerging individual differences in attentional control and working memory may play a role in mediating later-developing differences in academic and other forms of learning. I review the currently small number of studies that applied direct and indirect cognitive training targeted at young individuals and discuss methodological challenges associated with targeting this age group. I also discuss a number of ways in which early, targeted cognitive training may be used to help us understand the developmental mechanisms subserving typical and atypical cognitive development.     

A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is currently defined as a cognitive/behavioral developmental disorder where all clinical criteria are behavioral. Inattentiveness, overactivity, and impulsiveness are presently regarded as the main clinical symptoms. The dynamic developmental behavioral theory is based on the hypothesis that altered dopaminergic function plays a pivotal role by failing to modulate nondopaminergic (primarily glutamate and GABA) signal transmission appropriately. A hypofunctioning mesolimbic dopamine branch produces altered reinforcement of behavior and deficient extinction of previously reinforced behavior. This gives rise to delay aversion, development of hyperactivity in novel situations, impulsiveness, deficient sustained attention, increased behavioral variability, and failure to "inhibit" responses ("disinhibition"). A hypofunctioning mesocortical dopamine branch will cause attention response deficiencies (deficient orienting responses, impaired saccadic eye movements, and poorer attention responses toward a target) and poor behavioral planning (poor executive functions). A hypofunctioning nigrostriatal dopamine branch will cause impaired modulation of motor functions and deficient nondeclarative habit learning and memory. These impairments will give rise to apparent developmental delay, clumsiness, neurological "soft signs," and a "failure to inhibit" responses when quick reactions are required. Hypofunctioning dopamine branches represent the main individual predispositions in the present theory. The theory predicts that behavior and symptoms in ADHD result from the interplay between individual predispositions and the surroundings. The exact ADHD symptoms at a particular time in life will vary and be influenced by factors having positive or negative effects on symptom development. Altered or deficient learning and motor functions will produce special needs for optimal parenting and societal styles. Medication will to some degree normalize the underlying dopamine dysfunction and reduce the special needs of these children. The theory describes how individual predispositions interact with these conditions to produce behavioral, emotional, and cognitive effects that can turn into relatively stable behavioral patterns.     

America

T. S. Braver and colleagues (e.g., T. S. Braver, J. D. Cohen, &; D. M. Barch, 2002) have provided a theory of cognitive control that focuses on the role of context processing. According to their theory, an underlying context-processing mechanism is responsible for the cognitive control functions of attention, inhibition, and working memory. In the present study, the authors examined whether T. S. Braver et al.'s theory can account for developmental differences in cognitive control. The authors compared the performance of children (M age = 11.9 years, SD = 0.43 years) with that of young adults (M age = 21.7 years, SD = 3.61 years) on a continuous performance task (AX-CPT) that placed demands on context processing. The results suggest that developmental differences in the cognitive control functions of attention, inhibition, and working memory may be based on age-related changes in an underlying context-processing mechanism.     

Signs and the process of interpretation: sign as an object and as a process

Historically the words representation and symbol have had overlapping meanings, meanings that usually disregard the role played by the interpreter. Peirce’s theory of signs accounts for these meanings and also for the role of the interpreter. His theory draws attention to the static and dynamic nature of signs. Sign interpretation can be viewed as a continuous dynamic and evolving process. The static and dynamic nature of signs helps us understand the teaching–learning activity as a process of interpretation on the part of teacher and students. The paper attempts to explain the classroom interpretation process on the part of the actors involved using the Peircean theory of signs.     

Unbroken mirrors: challenging a theory of Autism

The 'broken mirror' theory of autism has received considerable attention far beyond the scientific community. This theory proposes that the varied social-cognitive difficulties characteristic of autism could be explained by dysfunction of the mirror neuron system, thought to play a role in imitation. We examine this theory and argue that explaining typical imitation behavior, and the failure to imitate in autism, requires much more than the mirror neuron system. Furthermore, evidence for the role of the mirror neuron system in autism is weak. We suggest the broken mirror theory of autism is premature and that better cognitive models of social behavior within and beyond the mirror neuron system are required to understand the causes of poor social interaction in autism.     

Context processing and cognitive control in children and young adults

T. S. Braver and colleagues (e.g., T. S. Braver, J. D. Cohen, & D. M. Barch, 2002) have provided a theory of cognitive control that focuses on the role of context processing. According to their theory, an underlying context-processing mechanism is responsible for the cognitive control functions of attention, inhibition, and working memory. In the present study, the authors examined whether T. S. Braver et al.'s theory can account for developmental differences in cognitive control. The authors compared the performance of children (M age = 11.9 years, SD = 0.43 years) with that of young adults (M age = 21.7 years, SD = 3.61 years) on a continuous performance task (AX-CPT) that placed demands on context processing. The results suggest that developmental differences in the cognitive control functions of attention, inhibition, and working memory may be based on age-related changes in an underlying context-processing mechanism.     

Performance-based measures in autism: implications for diagnosis, early detection, and identification of cognitive profiles

Provides a critical review of performance-based assessment measures in autism. Currently, performance-based measures of autism are being explored in two domains: structured play sessions and cognitive-neuropsychological assessments. Structured play sessions are designed to elicit the behavioral symptoms associated with autism to provide a consistent and valid means of early detection and diagnosis of autism across different evaluators and settings. These structured play sessions provide a supplement to diagnostic instruments based on parental report. Cognitive-neuropsychological tasks have been used to identify possible underlying cognitive impairments in autism including executive function, theory of mind, selective attention, and abstraction. Currently, cognitive tasks are useful in treatment planning but are inappropriate for diagnostic purposes. Important goals for the future will be to integrate parent-report diagnostic interviews and structured play observations and to identify a profile of cognitive impairments that are specific to pervasive developmental disorders that can be incorporated into diagnostic protocols.     

Cultural Influences on Perceptions of Health, Illness, and Disability: A Review and Focus on Autism

This conceptual paper considers the role of culture in shaping family, professional, and community understanding of developmental disabilities and their treatments. The meanings of health, illness, and disability vary greatly across cultures and across time. We use Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model to provide a theoretical framework for examining disability, with special attention to autism spectrum disorders. Cultural beliefs about the cause of a disorder influence families’ decision-making about what treatments to use and what outcomes to expect. Autism provides an example that is especially challenging, as there is no agreed-upon cause. Also, an overwhelming array of treatments is available in the West for autism, including behavioral, cognitive, pharmaceutical, sensory, relational, vitamin, and diet therapies. Other cultures contribute additional views on cause (e.g., Karma, Allah’s will) and treatments (e.g., acupuncture, herbal medicines, Ayurveda). We suggest how a broad cultural view can help us understand treatments and the treatment delivery system of a nation and a culture. For the best course of care, professionals need to understand and respect families’ views of autism and work toward mutually agreeable treatments that may involve a combination of biomedical and cultural practices. Although a family-focused, open teamwork model that aims to acknowledge the context of the child, take into consideration the strengths and limitations of the child and the family, and introduce appropriate, sustainable, and sensitive interventions is regarded as best practice in the United States, it will take sensitive work to find out whether it will suit other cultural groups across the world.     

Commentary on Ted Ruffman’s “Belief or not belief: …”

I applaud Ruffman for cautioning us against interpreting early sensitivity to others’ beliefs as evidence for an innate theory of mind and for making room for learning. In turn, however, I caution against his claim that all infants need is to understand that people act depending on what they perceive. Instead, infants may keep experiential records (Perner & Roessler, 2010) for other people or records of what they have registered (Apperly & Butterfill, 2009), which makes it less obvious that all required knowledge can be acquired by statistical learning. As a general criticism I remonstrate with current theory of mind research on its lack of concern that we understand people as acting for reasons which goes beyond detecting lawful regularities in behaviour.     

Testing the Adult Development Tower of Babel Hypothesis: Homogeneous by Perry Position Collaborative Learning Groups and Graduate Student Satisfaction

The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to investigate what appears to be a grounding assumption in some adult developmental and educational research: persons of differing epistemologies who are grouped together will understand one another less well than persons who are grouped homogeneously. A robust effect is discussed within the context of adult development theory, research on collaborative learning groups, and Bruffee's social constructionist challenge (K. A. Bruffee, 1993) to Perry and to cognitive development theory. Collateral research questions relating to covariates of developmental position (according to the Perry scheme) are entertained; confirmatory qualitative data are presented.     

婴幼儿词语习得中的社会性认知加工过程

有关婴幼儿词语习得的研究主要有三种理论假设:联想学习理论、制约限制理论和社会语用理论.本文将从以下四个方面着重介绍社会语用理论的相关研究:婴幼儿词语习得过程涉及哪些社会性认知加工过程,社会语用理论如何应对来自前两种理论的质疑和挑战,社会性认知加工过程的相对权重如何以及自闲症儿童词语习得存在怎样的社会性认知加工障碍.相关研究结果表明社会性认知加工过程在婴幼儿词语习得中具有基础性作用.最后对今后在该领域的研究中需要进一步深入探讨的问题提出了一些思考.     

Illusory and spurious correlations: distinct phenomena or joint outcomes of exemplar‐based category learning?

Stereotype formation about novel groups was analyzed with trivariate stimulus distributions that were generated by group membership, valence of behavior, and a context variable. Within this stimulus setting, we manipulated the confounding role of the context variable and the distinctiveness of events in terms of their relative infrequency. The experimental procedure allowed us to analyze illusory and spurious correlations in a joint framework, to conduct focused tests for memory effects of relative infrequency and to investigate the detection of covariations with the context variable. The results revealed that illusory and spurious correlations were formed without enhanced memory for infrequent events and with existing covariations of the confounding context factor being well extracted. These observations suggest that illusory and spurious correlations can be understood without assuming specific cognitive processes that are tied to the particular characteristics of a given stimulus distribution, such as enhanced memory in the case of relative infrequency and neglect of a context variable in the case of a confounding factor. Instead, computer simulations with an exemplar‐based learning model demonstrated that exemplar‐based category learning may provide a coherent and integrative theoretical framework for illusory correlations, spurious correlations and true contingency learning in social cognition. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Developmental order driving the relationship between executive functions and theory of mind: a case study

Several studies have suggested there is a developmental link between executive functions and theory of mind. However, the developmental order driving the relationship is not well understood. The main reason is that the development of executive function parallels the development of theory of mind in normally developing children. In this paper, a case (H.Y.) is reported. H.Y. had lived in a persistent vegetative state for 6 years after encephalitis at the age of 10. He showed a developmental order driving the relationship between executive functions and theory of mind. These findings are consistent with recent suggestions that development of executive function might be important as a predecessor of either the ability to understand false beliefs or the ability to express that understanding.     

Cognitive development as an executive process – in part: a homeopathic dose of Piaget

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development retains its importance through showing us how the exercise of agency is necessary to the development of self–world dualism and to the developing ability to frame explicit judgements about the physical and mental world. I begin by describing the Piagetian position in my own terms (Agency: Its role in mental development, 1996, for a fuller account) and then set it in the context of research on the executive functions. I also argue, however, that the theory lacks the resources to explain second-order mental representation. The theory was insufficiently nativist in general and insufficiently nativist about symbolic capacities in particular. But adopting a nativist view does not preclude one from taking a Piagetian line on the essential contribution of the first-person experience of agency to cognitive development.     

Understanding Autism Implications for Psychoanalysis

Several lines of evidence inform current psychoanalytic thinking about infantile autism. Although early psychoanalytic interest in autism centered around the notion that experience might play a role in pathogenesis a large body of data suggest this is not the case; rather the condition appears to be the result of genetic and other neurobiological factors. Studies of children with autism do, however, suggest basic problems in capacities for object relations and other aspects of ego development which must be understood in the context of autistic social dysfunction. The study of normally developing infants raises considerable questions about the validity of notions such as a normal autistic phase; rather than for the normally developing child interest in the social world appears to be an innate capacity and one which has considerable importance for our understanding of the nature of early ego development and capacities for self-object differentiation.     

自闭症儿童语言认知发展理论研究综述

目前,关于语言障碍和认知障碍是自闭症的核心症候,这一点在国际上已无异议,但究其发展障碍的本质如何,则各种见解仍处于分歧之中。本文主要是从认知心理学和发展语言心理学的角度,对自闭症儿童的语言认知障碍及其特征进行分析,旨在为中国儿童自闭症的研究和治疗提供一些参考观点。     

Social learning and the etiology of autism

A developmental theory of autism is presented as an alternative to current nativist theories. The traits of autism are seen as results of failure of the process of social learning. The distinction between social learning and ontogenic discovery is discussed and a model of normal social learning is presented, showing its cyclical nature and significance. Recognized traits of autism are briefly described and classified, and it is shown how the main categories of traits could result from defective social learning, while defective social learning itself could be the result of a variety of causes, some of which might also affect other aspects of intelligence. The theory provides a framework into which current knowledge of autism can be integrated.