Analysis of precursors to multiply controlled problem behavior: A replication

We replicated Fritz, Iwata, Hammond, and Bloom (2013) by evaluating the efficacy of an experimental methodology to identify precursors to aggression displayed by an adolescent with autism spectrum disorder. Using their trial‐based precursor analysis, we identified seven precursors to aggression. Next, we compared the outcomes of separate precursor and aggression functional analyses and showed that both precursors and aggression were multiply controlled by the same variables.     

Prevalence of multiply controlled problem behavior

We examined articles in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis in which results of functional analyses indicated that problem behavior was maintained by multiple sources of reinforcement. Data for 88 (16.9%) of 521 subjects reported in 168 studies met the criteria for multiple control. Data for 11 subjects (2.1%) involved a single response topography, whereas data for 77 subjects involved multiple, collapsed response topographies (14.8% of the total [521 cases] or 87.5% of the multiple control cases), suggesting that when multiple control is observed, it often may be a by-product of response aggregation during assessment.     

Functional analysis and operant treatment of food guarding in a pet dog

The present study extended functional analysis (FA) methodology to human-directed resource guarding in a dog in an in-home setting. The subject underwent four conditions including control, attention, escape, and tangible, arranged in a modified FA. The results indicated multiply controlled resource guarding (i.e., escape, attention, and tangible functions). The experimenter then conducted a treatment evaluation involving three function-based treatments in a concurrent multiple baseline design. Resource guarding decreased to zero levels in treatments for each maintaining contingency. Treatment effects were maintained when the subject was tested with an owner, with an untrained handler, a highly preferred treat, in an untrained setting, as well as after 2 weeks in the absence of training. Behavior analytic techniques may hold promise for lasting behavior change for resource guarding in domestic dogs, and should be examined in other populations and with other canine problem behavior.     

The effects of methylphenidate on a functional analysis of disruptive behavior: a replication and extension

In the present investigation, a functional analysis of the disruptive behavior of a 18-year-old man who had been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and moderate mental retardation was conducted, both when he was taking methylphenidate and when he was not taking the medication. The results of this functional analysis demonstrated that the participant's disruptive behaviors were reinforced by access to attention only when he was not taking methylphenidate.     

Assessment and treatment of elopement: a replication and extension

The current investigation replicated and extended the assessment and treatment methodology of elopement. The environmental variables that maintained elopement were identified in each case, and successful treatments were implemented for the 3 participants in settings that were similar to those in which elopement occurred.     

Evaluation of a break-to-choice chained-schedule intervention for multiply maintained problem behavior

Interventions for multiply maintained problem behavior often involve developing separate treatment conditions to address each function. Although isolating treatment conditions lead to positive outcomes, developing individual treatments for each identified function may be time-consuming. Alternatively, synthesizing treatment procedures may allow for more efficient treatment effects. We extended previous research by evaluating functional communication training (FCT) and chained schedules of reinforcement to treat multiply maintained problem behavior in children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. First, we conducted a functional analysis that concluded problem behavior was multiply maintained. Next, we taught functional communication responses (FCRs) and implemented a chained schedule of reinforcement. During the initial link, FCRs for a break resulted in the presentation of a choice menu with the other putative reinforcers in the terminal link. The relevant reinforcer was delivered contingent on the emission of subsequent FCRs. Finally, we systematically schedule thinned to caregiver-informed terminal schedules for each participant. The results of our study demonstrated that FCT, in combination with a sequential compound schedule of reinforcement, effectively decreased multiply maintained problem behavior and increased appropriate alternative responses (FCRs and compliance) even at terminal schedules of reinforcement.     

Treatment of multiply controlled destructive behavior with food reinforcement

We evaluated the extent to which the positive reinforcement of communication would reduce multiply controlled destructive behavior in the absence of relevant extinction components. When edible reinforcement for appropriate communication and nonfood reinforcers for problem behavior were available simultaneously, responding was allocated almost exclusively toward the behavior that produced edible reinforcement.     

Assessment and treatment of low-rate high-intensity problem behavior.

Functional analysis of low‐rate aggression was conducted during extended observation periods and showed behavior to be maintained by positive reinforcement. Treatment consisted of variable‐momentary differential reinforcement of other behavior and was successful in reducing problem behavior throughout these extended observation periods.     

Functional analysis of problem behavior: a review

Functional analysis methodology focuses on the identification of variables that influence the occurrence of problem behavior and has become a hallmark of contemporary approaches to behavioral assessment. In light of the widespread use of pretreatment functional analyses in articles published in this and other journals, we reviewed the literature in an attempt to identify best practices and directions for future research. Studies included in the present review were those in which (a) a pretreatment assessment based on (b) direct observation and measurement of (c) problem behavior was conducted under (d) at least two conditions involving manipulation of an environmental variable in an attempt (e) to demonstrate a relation between the environmental event and behavior. Studies that met the criteria for inclusion were quantified and critically evaluated along a number of dimensions related to subject and setting characteristics, parametric and qualitative characteristics of the methodology, types of assessment conditions, experimental designs, topographies of problem behaviors, and the manner in which data were displayed and analyzed.     

A descriptive analysis of social consequences following problem behavior.

The social consequences delivered for problem behavior during functional analyses are presumed to represent common sources of reinforcement; Final acceptance however, the extent to which these consequences actually follow problem behavior in natural settings remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether access to attention, escape, or tangible items is frequently observed as a consequence of problem behavior under naturalistic conditions. Twenty‐seven adults who lived in a state residential facility and who exhibited self‐injurious behavior, aggression, or disruption participated. Observers recorded the occurrence of problem behavior by participants as well as a variety of consequences delivered by caregivers. Results indicated that attention was the most common consequence for problem behavior and that aggression was more likely to produce social consequences than were other forms of problem behavior.     

Transfer of treatment effects from combined to isolated conditions during functional communication training for multiply controlled problem behavior

Functional communication training (FCT) is highly effective for treating socially maintained problem behavior when based on the results of functional analyses (FA). Research suggests that combining relevant antecedents and consequences of problem behavior during FCT can be an efficient approach to treatment for behavior that is multiply controlled. However, no studies have evaluated whether treatment effects under combined conditions would transfer to single, or isolated, conditions. Participants were 5 children with autism, aged 3 years to 6 years, who engaged in problem behavior maintained by both escape from demands and access to tangibles. An experimenter coached their caregivers via video conferencing to implement FA and FCT in their homes. All participants received FCT under a combined condition, followed by brief exposure to sessions with isolated antecedents and consequences. Treatment effects for just 1 of the 5 participants immediately persisted under isolated conditions. These results suggest that, when caregivers combine variables relevant to multiple functions during FCT, exposure to isolated conditions may at least temporarily produce treatment failures.     

The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior.

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) and aggression have been the concern of researchers because of the serious impact these behaviors have on individuals' lives. Despite the plethora of research on the treatment of SIB and aggressive behavior, the reported findings have been inconsistent regarding the effectiveness of reinforcement-based versus punishment-based procedures. We conducted a literature review to determine whether a trend could be detected in researchers' selection of reinforcement-based procedures versus punishment-based procedures, particularly since the introduction of functional analysis to behavioral assessment. The data are consistent with predictions made in the past regarding the potential impact of functional analysis methodology. Specifically, the findings indicate that, once maintaining variables for problem behavior are identified, experimenters tend to choose reinforcement-based procedures rather than punishment-based procedures as treatment for both SIB and aggressive behavior. Results indicated an increased interest in studies on the treatment of SIB and aggressive behavior, particularly since 1988.     

Functional analysis and treatment of adult problem behavior: A review

Functional analysis (FA) methodology has been deemed the best practice in the field of applied behavior analysis. The data collected in an FA allows behavior analysts to develop the most effective and ethical behavior interventions. With the diagnosis for individuals with autism on the rise along with the forecast of adults who will need support, it may be time to take stock of the available literature. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the behavior analytic research over the last 25 years (1997–2022) on FA and treatment for adults who engage in severe problem behavior. Utilizing specific inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in the identification of 28 articles. These articles were examined across participant characteristics, target behavior, FA type, FA settings, interventions, generalization, and maintenance. Implications on adult FA and treatment are discussed along with recommendations for practitioners who desire to support this population.     

Mand compliance as a contingency controlling problem behavior: A systematic review

Bowman et al. (1997) described a dynamic contingency in which severe problem behavior was evoked by adult noncompliance with a variety of child mands, which occurred at high rates, and was reinforced by adult compliance with subsequent mands. They discovered this phenomenon with 2 children for whom standard functional analyses were inconclusive. In recent years, similar contingencies have been shown to influence problem behavior, but the manner in which they have been arranged and described has varied across studies. The purpose of this literature review is to (a) describe contingencies involving mand compliance and the circumstances under which they have been evaluated, (b) summarize procedural variations in analysis and treatment, and (c) discuss what is known and yet to be discovered about the contingency as it relates to problem behavior. Future research focused on improving technology for analyzing and treating problem behavior suspected to be sensitive to mand compliance is discussed.     

Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior related to mands for rearrangement

This study is a systematic replication of a functional analysis (FA) of the relation between mands and problem behavior. We extended treatment approaches for this problem behavior function, and describe the treatment of problem behavior related to mands for rearrangement demonstrated by a 12‐year‐old girl with autism spectrum disorder and Smith‐Magenis syndrome. The mands consisted of requests for others to change their body positioning or proximity, or rearrange items back to their original position. An FA confirmed the relation between problem behavior and mand compliance, and functional communication training with extinction decreased problem behavior and increased functional communication responses. Problem behavior remained low as gradually longer nonreinforcement periods were introduced using a multiple schedule.     

Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior evoked by noise.

We conducted a four‐part investigation to develop methods for assessing and treating problem behavior evoked by noise. In Phase 1, 7 participants with developmental disabilities who were described as being hypersensitive to specific noises were exposed to a series of noises under controlled conditions. Results for 2 of the participants verified that noise was apparently an aversive event. In Phase 2, results of functional analyses indicated that these 2 participants' problem behaviors were maintained by escape from noise. In Phase 3, preference assessments were conducted to identify reinforcers that might be used during treatment. Finally, in Phase 4, the 2 participants' problem behaviors were successfully treated with extinction, stimulus fading, and a differential‐reinforcement‐of‐other‐behavior (DRO) contingency (only 1 participant required DRO). Treatment effects for both participants generalized to their home environments and were maintained during a follow‐up assessment. Procedures and results were discussed in terms of their relevance to the systematic assessment of noise as an establishing operation (EO) and, more generally, to the identification of idiosyncratic EO influences on behavior.     

Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior exhibited by elementary school children.

A functional analysis involving antecedent events was conducted with 4 students who had been identified as having behavior problems. Off-task behavior was measured while task difficulty and level of adult attention were manipulated during analogue sessions. Results revealed two patterns: Three students displayed higher rates of off-task behavior during difficult tasks, and 1 displayed higher rates of off-task behavior during sessions with low attention. Improved behavior was observed when students were taught an alternative behavior that matched the assessment results.     

Efficiency in functional analysis of problem behavior: A quantitative and qualitative review

Originating in the mid-1960s, functional analysis (FA) has become the gold standard method for understanding the environmental variables that come to shape and maintain problematic behaviors such as aggression, self-injury, and property destruction. Over the decades, a number of studies have refined FA methods, attempting to improve the overall efficiency of the analysis through experimental design and procedural modifications. In the present review, we used ongoing visual-inspection criteria and basic probability theory to compare and analyze levels of efficiency across FA types. The multielement design and synthesized contingency analyses were about equally efficient with respect to the mean number of sessions conducted per function tested, and the trial-based and synthesized contingency analyses were the 2 most efficient with respect to the mean duration per function tested. We discuss the implications of these findings in the broader context of efficiency and provide recommendations for maximizing efficiency during an FA. We also discuss other qualitative procedural details that may influence the overall efficiency of an FA.