The Jewish emigration from palestine in the early twentieth century

Rabinovitch boarded the ship with all the others who were leaving the land of Israel because the land didn't absorb them, so they leave the Land and return outside the Land. Some are glad to get away from the suffering of the Land and some are sad for they don't know what they will do outside the Land. When they ascended to the Land, they knew why they ascended, when they descend and go outside the Land, they don't know why they are descending.     

Positive reinforcement and the elimination of reinforced responses

Key pecking was maintained on a fixed-interval schedule while either a differential-reinforcement-of-not-responding or a fixed-time schedule was imposed simultaneously. The lower the time parameter of the not-responding schedule, the lower was the response rate. Similar effects occurred with the fixed-time schedule, if the pigeons had experience with reinforcement for not responding. Otherwise the effects were less orderly, to the extent that rate could reach maximum with the lowest-valued fixed-time schedule. The not-responding and the response-independent schedules had similar effects on rate in experienced pigeons only when the time parameter or nominal frequency of food presentation was considered. When considered in terms of obtained frequency of food presentation, reinforcement of not responding produced larger decrements in rate than did the fixed-time schedule.     

Dance becomes therapeutic in the mid to late 20th century

The convergence of dance art and therapeutic culture engendered the development of dance-movement therapy in the mid to late 20th century internationally. This article traces the sociopolitical, institutional, and aesthetic influences that coalesced in this process by contrasting histories of dance-movement therapy in Hungary and in the United States. The professionalization dance-movement therapy, through which it established its own theory, practice, and training institutions, occurred first in the United States in the late 1940s. Modern dancers in the United States began to conceptualize their activity as therapeutic, and the dancer as a (secular) healer, a therapist. The influx of therapeutic concepts into the field of dance is viewed as an example of therapeutic discourse permeating various areas of life in the 20th century. The Hungarian case provides a contrasting history of therapeutic culture, one that deviates from the predominant view of the phenomenon as a product of the global spread of Western modernization and the growth of free-market capitalism. Hungarian movement and dance therapy indeed developed independently from its American predecessor. Its history is intimately tied to the sociopolitical context of state-socialist period, particularly to the institutionalization of psychotherapy in public hospitals, and to the adaptation of Western group psychotherapies within the informal setting of the “second public sphere.” The legacy of Michael Balint and the British object-relations school provided its theoretical framework. Its methodology was rooted in postmodern dance. The methodological differences between American dance-movement therapy and the Hungarian method reflects the shift in dance aesthetics that occurred internationally between 1940 and 1980s.     

Positive reinforcement of litter removal in the natural environment

Litter is an especially large and costly problem in unsupervised high-use recreational areas. This study investigated procedures to induce visitors to remove litter from an unsupervised U.S. Forest Service area in which signs attached to two litter stations instructed people to pick up and deposit litter. A small sum of money or chances on a larger sum given for participation usually resulted in more bags of litter being picked up per week. Although only a small proportion of the area's users participated in the project, ground surveys indicated the areas sampled were somewhat freer of litter during the payment condition. The results suggest that small monetary rewards may be a promising approach to litter control in unsupervised as well as supervised areas.     

Afterward: Emmanuel Levinas,the multicultural philosopher.

Continental Philosophy Review -     

马克思哲学—政治思想与20世纪马克思主义——恩斯特·布洛赫报告:《马克思,直路,具体的乌托邦》解读

恩斯特·布洛赫的报告:<马克思,直路,具体的乌托邦>不仅是一部关于马克思的纪念报告,也是一部创造性的马克思主义文献.在这份报告中,布洛赫高度评价了马克思哲学一政治思想的丰功伟绩,实事求是地指出了他的哲学一政治思想中的某些"实质性缺陷",批判了斯大林主义的"奴役性实践",划清了前苏东"官僚主义的马克思主义"与"现实的人道主义"的原则界限.根据布洛赫的评估,随着历史的发展和时代的变迁,马克思哲学一政治思想中的个别结论已不再有效,但是,马克思的基本思想,特别是"辩证法思想"、"异化理论"、"现实的人道主义理念"等依然有效.     

New Testament studies in the 20th century

Considered diachronically, NT studies in the twentieth century is a story of vigorous scholarship. Especially after World War II, there is increasing diversification in approach and in the makeup of scholars, with a noticeable shift of centre to English-speaking settings (especially North America), and greater involvement of Roman Catholic, Evangelical, and Jewish scholars, a growing prominence of women, and a proliferation of approaches.     

From philosopher to psychologist: the early career of Edwin Ray Guthrie, Jr

Edwin R. Guthrie rose to prominence as a psychologist in the 1930s. His theoretical outlook was behavioristic. This approach came from his conviction that an objective method could be applied to a scientific treatment of mind. Prior to becoming a psychologist, he was a philosopher of mathematics. Guthrie was initiated into psychology by Stevenson Smith, from whom he learned a psychology of adjustment informed by comparative research, Columbia functionalism, and clinical psychology. Guthrie's first step into psychology was in collaboration with Smith on Chapters in General Psychology (S. Smith & E.R. Guthrie, 1921). To synthesize their own unique position on learning from the contemporary theory and research, they used the principle of association. This articles focuses on Guthrie's origin and his development into a learning theorist.     

African American marriage in the 20th century

It is not possible to understand African American marriages fully without attention to the social, economic, racial, and historical factors that have stressed male-female relationships beyond those stresses experienced by majority couples. I propose that the societal projection process (Bowen, 1978) has entrapped African Americans in ways that have continually and severely strained their marital and couple relationships. These experiences, and the ways in which African Americans have responded to them, have created a vulnerability that is compounded by societal shifts and changes, and is manifest in the precipitous decline of marriages at a rate higher than that found in all other racial groups in the U.S. I will examine the state of African American marriages in this cultural context, with specific attention to the effects of the unequal sex ratio, socioeconomic conditions, and overstressed male-female relationships. I will then discuss implications and offer suggestions for therapists who work with this population.     

20世纪孟子学研究现代转型的四种进路

清末以来,伴随西学东渐的冲击与学科置换推动,孟子学由地位尊崇到逐步解体,迈向多元化,呈现出四个向度的转型:学科范式经历了由经学到子学,由子学到文、史、哲现代分科的递嬗;研究模式由经学时代的义理、考据转换为现代的方法多元;中西关系方面从"西学东渐"到"中西会通",再到"回归儒学";研究重心由传统时代的"内圣"为主转换到"内圣"与"外王"的双重关注。然而,孟子学现代转型所产生的问题亦不可忽视:孟子学一旦进入学科化体系,易陷入专业隔阂的困境,应改进学科建制,重建跨学科体系;研究方法上融新旧于一体,既要继承传统的义理、考据等解经方法,又要借鉴现代多元方法;援西入孟应维护孟子学底色,避免西学化的格义与解剖。因此,在研究中应将此四个维度融为一体,架构起纵横交织的立体解读框架,从而深入挖掘孟子思想内涵,推动儒学的现代转型。     

Marital research in the 20th century and a research agenda for the 21st century

In this article we review the advances made in the 20th century in studying marriages. Progress moved from a self-report, personality-based approach to the study of interaction in the 1950s, following the advent of general systems theory. This shift led, beginning in the 1970s, to the rapid development of marital research using a multimethod approach. The development of more sophisticated observational measures in the 1970s followed theorizing about family process that was begun in the decade of the 1950s. New techniques for observation, particularly the study of affect and the merging of synchronized data streams using observational and self-report perceptual data, and the use of sequential and time-series analyses produced new understandings of process and power. Research in the decades of the 1980s and 1990s witnessed the realization of many secular changes in the American family, including the changing role of women, social science's discovery of violence and incest in the family, the beginning of the study of cultural variation in marriages, the expansion of the measurement of marital outcomes to include longevity, health, and physiology (including the immune system), and the study of comorbidities that accompany marital distress. A research agenda for the 21st century is then described.