SENSORY AND PREPARATORY FACTORS IN RESPONSE LATENCY

T hrane , V. C. Sensory and preparatory factors in response latency. IV. General and differential warning of full-scale auditory intensities. Scand. J Psychol ., 1961, 2, 211–224.—Twenty-one loudness variants ranging from hardly audible to no db re standard threshold were randomly presented after either (1) a constant or (2) a varied warning signal denoting one range below and two above an assumed transition point for the bi-functional relationship between response latency and stimulus intensity. Under (1) greater improvement with practice at one end of the scale was acccompanied by smaller gains at the other end. Under (2) practice had favorable but preknowledge unfavorable effects at the weakest intensities. Differential warning facilitated speed of response only for medium and strong stimuli and most at the high end of the scale.     

SENSORY AND PREPARATORY FACTORS IN RESPONSE LATENCY: The visual intensity function

Simple reaction times under irregular order of stimulus presentation are studied as a function of three luminous intensities viewed foveally and covering five log I units at the upper half of the brightness scale. Response latency varies inversely and rectilineariy with log I within this range. Respondents tend to converge in average latency but differ more in variability as stimulus strength is reduced, the more variable subjects even at high intensity suffering relatively greater loss in speed. Both positive and negative practice effects are observed, which seem partly dependent on stimulus intensity.     

SENSORY AND PREPARATORY FACTORS IN RESPONSE LATENCY: III. Preknowledge and regularity of stimuli as antecedent variables

T hrane , V. C. Sensory and preparatory factors in response latency. III. Preknowledge and regularity of stimuli as antecedent variables. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1961, 2, 30–44.—Interaction between stimulus and organismic determinants of simple reaction time under weak and strong auditory stimulation was studied with 24 subjects. Results indicate that without specific preknowledge of the stimulus variants presented, there is little or no correlation between sensory and non-sensory determinants of response latency, but that both speed and constancy of response are influenced by preknowledge, and to some extent by regularity of stimuli, in a manner and to a degree which depend on the expected intensity, thus being consistent with the hypothesis of bipolar (positive and negative) compensatory interaction.     

RECOGNITION AND RECALL: LATENCY AND RECURRENCE OF IMAGES

Explanations of improvements in memory through the formation of mental images require that the same image recurs when the stimulus is re-presented on the test trial. The experiment obtained information on the latency and recurrence of images to explain anomalies in recognition memory following imaging. In Part A, words of high or low I were presented one by one and subjects stopped a timer to indicate when they had formed an image to each word. The words were then presented for a second time, together with an equal number of new words. As before, subjects stopped a timer when they had formed an image. They reported whether the word had been presented before, and, if so, whether the image was the same as on the first presentation. No change was found in the latency of image formation to high I words but the latency to low I words decreased on the second presentation and the same image recurred less frequently to low I words. In Part B, pairs of words were presented. Pairs and single words from pairs were presented again, along with equal numbers of new pairs and new single words. On 94 per cent of occasions on which pairs were presented for a second time the recurrence of the same image was reported. When single words were presented the same image recurred on only 22 per cent of occasions.     

“知道感”任务中的图片和字词的感受性和判断标准

该实验考察了在“知道感”（FOK）任务中的字词和图片的感受性和判断标准的差异。实验运用Hart的“回忆—FOK判断—再认”（RJR）范式,用字词和图片作为刺激材料,采用两种不同的加工水平,并根据信号检测论中的评价法对结果进行分析,结果表明：在知道感任务中,只有在线索回忆正确百分率和FOK判断等级上表现出了图片优势效应,而再认正确率和FOK准确性则没有图片优势;而且,不论是深加工还是浅加工,被试对字词和图片的感受性都没有显著性差异,但判断标准的变化较为复杂,且受加工水平的影响较大,显示出图片优势效应的产生与被试的反应偏向有关。     

CROSS-MODAL TRANSFER AND SENSORY EQUIVALENCE

Recent studies of cross-modal matching and transfer in animals and human subjects are reviewed and some problems concerning the design of experiments to study these phenomena discussed. Attempts to account for cross-modal effects are evaluated and the concept of sensory equivalence briefly examined.     

SENSORY EXTINCTION AND SENSORY REINFORCEMENT PRINCIPLES FOR PROGRAMMING MULTIPLE ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR CHANGE

The role of sensory reinforcement was examined in programming multiple treatment gains in self-stimulation and spontaneous play for developmentally disabled children. Two phases were planned. First, we attempted to identify reinforcers maintaining self-stimulation. Sensory Extinction procedures were implemented in which auditory, proprioceptive, or visual sensory consequences of self-stimulatory behavior were systematically removed and reintroduced in a reversal design. When self-stimulation was decreased or eliminated as a result of removing one of these sensory consequences, the functional sensory consequence was designated as a child's preferred sensory reinforcer. In Phase 2, we assessed whether children would play selectively with toys producing the preferred kind of sensory stimulation. The results showed the following. (1) Self-stimulatory behavior was found to be maintained by sensory reinforcement. When the sensory reinforcer was removed, self-stimulation extinguished. (2) The sensory reinforcers identified for self-stimulatory behavior also served as reinforcers for new, appropriate toy play. (3) The multiple treatment gains observed appeared to be relatively durable in the absence of external reinforcers for play or restraints on self-stimulation. These results illustrate one instance in which multiple behavior change may be programmed in a predictable, lawful fashion by using “natural communities of sensory reinforcement.”     

THE RELATIVE MOTIVATIONAL PROPERTIES OF SENSORY AND EDIBLE REINFORCERS IN TEACHING AUTISTIC CHILDREN

We compared the effects of sensory and edible reinforcers on resistance to satiation in three autistic children while learning visual discrimination tasks. Within-subject designs were used to compare a single sensory reinforcer with a single edible reinforcer and to compare multiple sensory reinforcers with multiple edibles. Results indicated that multiple sensory reinforcers maintained responding over more trials than did multiple edible reinforcers; however, the use of single sensory reinforcers and single edibles resulted in about equal numbers of trials to satiation. Both multiple and single sensory reinforcers produced higher percentages of correct responses than edible reinforcers. The findings are discussed in terms of the advantages of sensory reinforcers in teaching autistic children.     

自由回忆中元记忆监控的作用及其影响因素

采用“类信号检测论方法”,通过两个实验,研究了在记忆信息提取过程中元记忆的预见性监测判断（Feeling-of-knowing）和元控制的作用及其影响因素。实验一探讨了识记材料的难易、识记遍数对元监测判断以及输出控制中的反应标准是否有影响;实验二探讨了严格和宽松的奖惩条件对输出控制中反应标准的影响。用计算机随机呈现识记用的词表材料,识记之后让被试进行FOK等级判断和自由回忆,再用“类信号检测论”方法统计实验数据,分析各种条件下回忆成绩、FOK判断等级,计算出相应的符合率和反应标准。实验一结果表明,不同材料难度和识记遍数下的回忆成绩和FOK判断等级差异显著,但输出控制中的反应标准值没受这些因素的影响;实验二结果是严格和宽松奖惩条件下的反应标准值差异显著,严格条件下的反应标准显著高于宽松条件下的反应标准,表明奖惩条件对信息提取中的反应标准有显著影响     

WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: IMPACT AND RESPONSE*

The history of psychological science in the Philippines is considered as a case of cultural diffusion from the West through the English language and the institutions (educational and legal, business and industry, the media, government and the bureaucracy) which adopted the language. The development of academic and professional psychology and of psychology-related services has been phenomenal, particularly in the last decade. It has however, given rise to problems of (1) standards and validity in testing and research, and (2) applicability of concepts and methods in social psychology the roots of which are from another culture. Current trends and issues, as well the movement for indigenous Philippine social psychology, are briefly described.     

北京市老年人的生活满意度及其影响因素

利用“北京市老龄化多维纵向研究”１９９２年调查资料,分析北京市城乡散居老人２５４３例６０岁以上老年人,对婚姻、子女关系、生活、经济、健康、住房、休闲安排、医疗八个方面的满意程度,并由八个方面的满意度综合计算了总体生活满意度。结果显示北京市老年人的总体生活满意度及八项分类的满意度在中上水平。多元回归分析表明,与总体生活满意度有显著性相关因素有１７个,居于前五位的是健康自评、家庭和睦、经济够用程度、心境和受教育水平。     

选择作业中证伪思维的影响因素

研究了选择作业中证伪思维的影响因素。被试为星海音乐学院本科生592名。实验1、2研究了问题的诊断性对证伪思维的影响;实验3研究了提示证伪样例是否促进证伪;实验4研究了证真证伪相对难度改变是否影响证伪。结果表明：（1）证真和证伪都为诊断性问题,人们倾向于证真;证真为非诊断问题,证伪为诊断性问题,人们倾向于证伪。（2）提示证伪样例,可以促进证伪。（3）证真难度加大,可以促进证伪。结合正反信息转换系统的心理模型理论,可以很好地解释该研究结果。     

COGNITIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS IN THE EMERGENCE OF HUMAN ALTRUISM

One of the central tenets of Christian theology is the denial of self for the benefit of another. However, many views on the evolution of altruism presume that natural selection inevitably leads to a self‐seeking human nature and that altruism is merely a façade to cover underlying selfish motives. I argue that human altruism is an emergent characteristic that cannot be reduced to any one particular evolutionary explanation. The evolutionary processes at work in the formation of human nature are not necessarily in conflict with the possibility of altruism; rather, aspects of human nature are uniquely directed toward the care and concern of others. The relationship between altruism, human nature, and evolution can be reimagined by adopting an emergent view of the hierarchy of science and a theological worldview that emphasizes self‐renunciation. The investigation of altruism necessitates an approach that analyzes several aspects of altruistic behavior at different levels in the hierarchy of sciences. This research includes the study of evolutionary adaptations, neurological systems, cognitive functions, behavioral traits, and cultural influences. No one level is able to offer a full explanation, but each piece adds a unique dimension to a much larger puzzle.     

多动症儿童的心理评定和家庭因素的关系

本研究结果显示多动症儿童在行为评定量表、注意划消测验、本德尔视觉运动格式塔测验、本统视觉保持测验及智力测验等心理评定项目中,与正常儿童有着明显的差异。多动症儿童父母对待子女的态度及家庭教育方式和儿童的认知、行为、学习有明显的关系。家庭因素对多动症的发生和发展有重要的影响。心理评定为多动症的诊断提供客观的参考依据。     

ANTECEDENT FACTORS DIFFERENTIATING WOMEN AND MEN IN SCIENCE/ NONSCIENCE CAREERS

Factors that differentiate women and men who choose a science career from those who do not were investigated using longitudinal data from 1980 and 1990. The participants (N = 459) were ninth or twelfth graders at six midwestern high schools in 1980. Women in science compared to women in other careers were significantly more likely to value math and science for their future career goals, whereas men in science compared to men in other careers had significantly higher high school grade point averages in natural science and higher career aspirations. Not unexpectedly, both women and men in science careers compared to those in nonscience careers took more high school elective science courses because they wanted to, aspired to higher prestige careers as young adults, and attributed their math successes more to their ability. The male model accounted for more than twice the variance accounted for by the female model, and context variables were not predictive for either model. Suggestions for revising the model and improving the assessment of context influences are made. Implications for research and practice include designing and evaluating programs to increase the number of intellectually able girls valuing math and science as these relate to their future goals.     

EXPOSURE TO INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN ENVIRONMENTS AND FORMAL SCHOOLING AS FACTORS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION

The influence on psychological differentiation exerted by exposure to industrial and urban environments and to formal schooling was investigated with the help of Story-Pictorial EFT administered on 240 7–10-year-old children belonging to the Santhal tribe residing in and around an industrial city in Bihar. A 2 × 2 × 2 ANOVA performed on differentiation scores revealed significant main effects of industrial and urban exposures, and of schooling. Significant 3-way interaction effect indicated that the impact of urbanization in the industrial and non-industrial settings varied with exposure to formal schooling, and that the main effects in spite of their being statistically significant have to be taken with caution. Impact of the three factors on psychological differentiation is interpreted in terms of changes induced through acculturation that alter the experiential base of the individual as well as cultural characteristics of this environment.