Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: the impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy.

Three studies investigated implicit biases, and their modifiability, against overweight persons. In Study 1 (N = 144), the authors demonstrated strong implicit anti-fat attitudes and stereotypes using the Implicit Association Test, despite no explicit anti-fat bias. When participants were informed that obesity is caused predominantly by overeating and lack of exercise, higher implicit bias relative to controls was produced; informing participants that obesity is mainly due to genetic factors did not result in lower bias. In Studies 2A (N = 90) and 2B (N = 63), participants read stories of discrimination against obese persons to evoke empathy. This did not lead to lower bias compared with controls but did produce diminished implicit bias among overweight participants, suggesting an in-group bias.     

Gs Invaders: Assessing a computer game-like test of processing speed

Computer games potentially offer a useful research tool for psychology but there has been little use made of them in assessing cognitive abilities. Two studies assessing the viability of a computer game-like test of cognitive processing speed are described. In Experiment 1, a computerized coding task that uses a mouse responsemethod (McPherson & Burns, 2005) was the basis for a simple computer game-like test. In Experiment 2, dynamic game-like elements were added. Validity was assessed within a factor analytic framework using standardized abilities tests as marker tests. We conclude that computer game-like tests of processing speed may provide an alternative or supplementary tool for research and assessment. There is clearly potential to develop game-like tests for other cognitive abilities.     

Sequential response bias in randomized response sequences: A computer simulation

In this study sequential bias in randomized response sequences is simulated by computer. The computer model assumes that response bias is composed of two components. The first is a repetition avoidance tendency, which is simulated by a memory search through the seven most recently produced responses, and the second is a repetition tendency for the two most recently produced responses. This repetition tendency is assumed to be related to the better availability of recently produced responses. Both processes together give a reasonable approximation of human subjects' data.The results can be explained by the assumption that subjects try to control perseveration tendencies by using a comparison-based memory search mechanism.     

Understanding of speaker certainty and false‐belief reasoning: a comparison of Japanese and German preschoolers

It has been repeatedly shown that when asked to identify a protagonist's false belief on the basis of his false statement, English‐speaking 3‐year‐olds dismiss the statement and fail to attribute to him a false belief. In the present studies, we tested 3‐year‐old Japanese children in a similar task, using false statements accompanied by grammaticalized particles of speaker (un)certainty, as in everyday Japanese utterances. The Japanese children were directly compared with same‐aged German children, whose native language does not have grammaticalized epistemic concepts. Japanese children profited from the explicit statement of the protagonist's false belief when it was marked with the attitude of certainty in a way that German children did not – presumably because Japanese but not German children must process such marking routinely in their daily discourse. These results are discussed in the broader context of linguistic and theory of mind development.     

Body figure preferences of men and women: A comparison of two generations

Inspired by the earlier work of Rozin and Fallon (1988), this study investigated some potential determinants of the most recent increase of eating disorders among women in this country. Measures of current, preferred attractive, and acceptable body images for opposite- and same-gender figures, in addition to the thinnest and heaviest figures the subjects found attractive, were obtained from the same generation cohort as these students' parents. While gender differences were found, so were cohort differences. These cohort differences speak to factors relevant to understanding why there has been such an increase in the frequency of eating disorders in Western culture since the late 1960s, especially among adolescent women. Possible implications for treatment of eating disorders are discussed. However, the authors note that further studies are needed to determine if the cohort differences found might reflect a developmental or a definite cohort effect.     

Further investigation of the validity and reliability of the photographic figure rating scale for body image assessment

Previous studies have not fully investigated the psychometric properties of the Photographic Figure Rating Scale (PFRS). In 2 studies, we report on the test-retest reliability and convergent validity of ratings derived from the PFRS. In Study 1, 322 female university students in Britain provided self-ratings on the PFRS and objectively measured body mass index (BMI); a subsample of 132 women also completed the task after 5 weeks. In Study 2, 243 women from the community in Austria completed the PFRS along with a battery of other body image scales. Results of Study 1 showed that ratings on the PFRS had good test-retest reliability (all rs > .87) and good convergent validity in relation to BMI. Results of Study 2 showed that PFRS-derived body dissatisfaction scores were significantly correlated with a range of body image variables. These results provide evidence for the convergent validity and good test-retest reliability of the PFRS.     

Initial examination of the validity and reliability of the female photographic figure rating scale for body image assessment

The present study reports on the reliability and validity of an improved body image assessment scale, namely the female Photographic Figure Rating Scale (PFRS). This scale consists of ten photographic images of real women varying in body mass index (BMI) from emaciated to obese. The PFRS was designed to overcome many of the limitations associated with line-drawn figures that are currently in use, including a lack of realism and poor ecological validity. Based on a sample of 208 adult women, the results of the present study showed that the PFRS had good validity in that all images were correctly rank-ordered by BMI. In addition, construct validity was supported by the finding that current self-ratings of body size based on the PFRS were significantly correlated with participants’ BMI and that body dissatisfaction was negatively correlated with positive body image. Finally, test–retest reliabilities showed that the PFRS remained stable after a three-week interval. The discussion focuses on the strengths and limitations of the PFRS in relation to existing scales used in body image assessment.     

Spatial location judgments: a cross-national comparison of estimation bias in subjective North American geography

We examined alternate explanations for distortions in the subjective representation of North American geography. One explanation, based on physical proximity, predicts that bias in location estimates should increase with the distance from a participant's home city or region. An alternative is that biases arise from combining accurate and inaccurate beliefs about the cities and the superordinate regions to which they belong, including beliefs that may have social or cultural origins. To distinguish these, Canadians from Alberta and Americans from Texas judged the latitudes of cities in Canada, the U.S., and Mexico. The Texans' estimates of Mexican locations were 16" (approximately 1,120 miles) more biased than their estimates of Canadian locations that were actually about 840 miles farther away. This finding eliminates proximity as a primary source of geographic biases and underscores the role of categorical beliefs as an important source of biased judgments.     

Common fears: a comparison of adolescents' self-generated and fear survey schedule generated fears.

Investigations into normative fear in adolescence have indicated that the most common fears are consistently death-related and danger-related. Assessments have most commonly been made from self-reports on fear survey schedules. The aim of the present study, therefore, was to determine whether adolescents would provide responses comparable to those generated through the use of a fear survey schedule when asked to list their 3 greatest fears. A total of 439 adolescents aged 11 to 18 years (237 girls, 201 boys, 1 sex not reported) listed their greatest fears; then they completed the 78-item Fear Survey Schedule for Children-II (E. Gullone & N. J. King, 1992). Consistent with past research, the 10 most common fears generated via the fear schedule related to death and danger. However, on the whole, the self-generated fears deviated from the death and danger theme, also including fear of failure, fear of animals, and fear of the unknown. A tendency toward global responses in self-generated fears appeared to encompass the majority of specific death-related fears included in the fear schedule, thus allowing for other predominant fears to be listed among the 3 most common.     

Individual differences in the anti-fat attitudes of preschool-children: the importance of perceived body size

Preschool-age children hold negative attitudes toward overweight peers (i.e., anti-fat attitudes), but little is known about individual differences in these attitudes. The current study investigated actual weight status and perceived body size in relation to preschool-age children's anti-fat attitudes. Sixty-nine 4–6 year-olds (61% girls) were individually interviewed about their body size perceptions using a figure rating scale and anti-fat attitudes using multiple methods (including an adjective rating scale and ratings of acceptability for different body shapes). Results suggested that children's perceived body size, not actual body size, was related to their attitudes about an overweight figure and the number of figures rated as acceptable. Children who perceived themselves as heavier held fewer anti-fat attitudes. Perceived and actual body size ratings were not related to ratings of a thin figure. This study suggests the importance of examining children's body image, particularly their perceived body size, in understanding their anti-fat attitudes.     

Cognitive bias via the Internet: a comparison of Web-based and standard emotional Stroop tasks in social phobia

There is accumulating evidence to suggest that social phobia is associated with attentional bias for words related to social threat. Information processing in individuals with social phobia (n = 87) was investigated in the present study using 2 versions of the emotional Stroop task. Results from a standard emotional Stroop task indicated delayed colour naming of socially threatening words relative to neutral words, in line with previous research, whereas results from a Web-based emotional Stroop task indicated a facilitation effect, with faster manual indication of colour choice for socially threatening words than for neutral words. Possible explanations for these contrasting findings and issues for further research are discussed.     

A comparison of computer and questionnaire methods of history-taking in a genito-urinary clinic

Abstract

Information on the medical history and symptomatology of 69 patients presenting at a genito-urinary (GU) clinic was obtained either by a computerized interview or a paper questionnaire and the results compared. A comparison was also made between these methods and notes taken during a standard physician interview. Significantly more symptoms were elicited by the computer than the paper questionnaire. Both methods also elicited significantly more symptoms than were recorded by the physician. The patients reported having previously attended a GU clinic more often to the computer than to the physician whereas the questionnaire was no different from the physician. The results indicate that computers can be used satisfactorily to facilitate medical history- taking in GU clinics and may result in a more complete profile of symptoms than either written questionnaire or physician interview.     

Electromagnetic tracking of motion in the proximity of computer generated graphical stimuli: A tutorial

Electromagnetic motion-tracking systems have the advantage of capturing the tempo-spatial kinematics of movements independently of the visibility of the sensors. However, they are limited in that they cannot be used in the proximity of electromagnetic field sources, such as computer monitors. This prevents exploiting the tracking potential of the sensor system together with that of computer-generated visual stimulation. Here we present a solution for presenting computer-generated visual stimulation that does not distort the electromagnetic field required for precise motion tracking, by means of a back projection medium. In one experiment, we verify that cathode ray tube monitors, as well as thin-film-transistor monitors, distort electro-magnetic sensor signals even at a distance of 18 cm. Our back projection medium, by contrast, leads to no distortion of the motion-tracking signals even when the sensor is touching the medium. This novel solution permits combining the advantages of electromagnetic motion tracking with computer-generated visual stimulation.     

Bilingual comparison of Mandarin and English cognitive bias tasks

Most research into cognitive biases has used Western samples, despite potential East-West socio-cultural differences. One reason is the lack of appropriate measures for non-Westerners. This study is about cross-linguistic equivalence which needs to be established before assessing cross-cultural differences in future research. We developed parallel Mandarin and English measures of interpretation bias and attention bias using back-translation and decentering procedures. We assessed task equivalence by administering both sets of measures to 47 bilingual Mandarin-English speakers. Interpretation bias measurement was similar and reliable across language versions, confirming suitability of the Mandarin versions for future cross-cultural research. By contrast, scores on attention bias tasks did not intercorrelate reliably, suggesting that nonverbal stimuli such as pictures or facial expressions of emotion might present better prospects for cross-cultural comparison. The development of the first set of equivalent measures of interpretation bias in an Eastern language paves the way for future research investigating East-West differences in biased cognition.     

The effect of belief in weight controllability on anti-fat attitudes: An experimental manipulation

IntroductionAnti-fat attitudes reflect a type of discrimination on the basis of body weight and are one of the last accepted types of social stigma.ObjectiveTo evaluate the effect of exposure to priming messages about the causes of obesity on attitudes toward fat people.MethodParticipants (n = 580, M age = 22.19, 64.1% female) were randomly assigned to one of three possible conditions and then provided responses on three AFA subscales: Dislike, Fear of fat, and Willpower.ResultsPriming participants with messages confirming/challenging the weight controllability belief was associated with higher/lower levels on Willpower respectively compared to the control group. Unexpectedly, participants in both confirming and challenging groups showed significantly higher scores on Fear of fat. No differences were found on scores indicating Dislike.ConclusionThe current findings emphasize the effect of exposure to information about the causes of obesity on weight controllability beliefs.     

Drawing and handedness of preschoolers: a repeated-measurement approach to hand preference

This study investigated handedness and drawing by preschoolers. An observational method for repeated measurement of hand preference is presented. A sample of 381 children (191 girls, 190 boys) ranging in age from 48 to 71 mo. was tested for drawing and hand preference on 14 tasks. Consistent hand preference was defined as always using a particular hand (left or right) for the same task. Girls with consistent hand preference showed better drawing scores compared to girls with inconsistent hand preference. The results showed the importance of a reliable method for measuring hand preference within a single task as early as preschool age.     

Executive function in preschoolers: a review using an integrative framework

During the last 2 decades, major advances have been made in understanding the development of executive functions (EFs) in early childhood. This article reviews the EF literature during the preschool period using an integrative framework. The framework adopted considers EF to be a unitary construct with partially dissociable components (A. Miyake et al., 2000). The authors focus on 3 EF components: working memory, response inhibition, and shifting. For the present purposes, the central executive is conceived of as a central attention system that is involved in all EF component operations. Research to date suggests that elementary forms of the core EF components are present early during the preschool period. Changes in EF during the latter half of the preschool period appear to be due to the development of attention and integration of component EFs. Finally, the review outlines a number of areas that warrant further investigation if researchers are to move forward in understanding early EF development.