Popular and rejected children's social reasoning: linking social status and social knowledge.

The relationship between children's social status/sex and their moral judgements was examined. Sixty-four second- and third-grade children (33 boys, 31 girls) who were identified as popular or rejected by peer sociometric measures were shown pictures of children engaged in moral and second-order transgressions. The children were asked to rate each event on (a) the degree of seriousness for other and self, (b) the amount of punishment for other and self, and (c) rule alterability. The children were also asked for justification of the transgressions (why they thought the transgressions were wrong). The popular and rejected children differentiated between moral and second-order transgressions based upon criterion ratings and justifications. Differences emerged between the popular and the rejected children's ratings and justifications for moral transgressions, suggesting that children's moral judgements are related to social experiences associated with peer acceptance and rejection.     

Early predictors of career development: A 10-year follow-up study

This paper presents empirical findings from a 10-year longitudinal study of the educational and occupational socialization of 445 participants who were about 7 years old when first tested, and about 17 years old at the fourth time of measurement. In addition to collecting psychological measurements from the participants, behavioral reports were collected from significant others, specifically parents and teachers. Findings demonstrated that the life/career evolution of the participants can be understood only when taking into account the dynamic interaction between the unique personal characteristics of individuality of each person and the psychosocial theatre within which the person’s development takes place. Using the life-span, life-space framework of Super, and the Developmental-Contextual model from Vondracek, different emerging early predictors with unique impact on the process of educational and occupational socialization were identified, especially with respect to the probability of dropping out of school. Results in terms of gender, parental influences, psychological characteristics, and social context are discussed with regard to their potential implications for psychological interventions in schools, families, and occupational settings, as well as with regard to personal counseling in what concerns the management of life circumstances and behavioral ecosystems.     

A 1-year follow-up study of children's divorce adjustment,custodial mothers' divorce adjustment,and postdivorce parenting

This study examined stability of and change in divorce adjustment in a sample of 20 white custodial mothers and their children (8 boys, 12 girls; mean age = 10.45 years) who were examined an average of 12.85 months after separation and again one year later. Pearson correlations generally revealed moderate stability in children's adjustment, mothers' adjustment, and parenting dimensions. Significant changes over the one-year period were found only with respect to children's beliefs about the divorce: problematic beliefs regarding peer ridicule and avoidance, fear of abandonment, and self-blame decreased over the 1-year period. Children's adjustment at Time 2 was related to the following variables assessed at Time 1: low rhythmic and low reactive child temperaments; children's mature understanding of conflict resolution; high social support for children and for mothers; low maternal stress; high maternal adjustment; cooperative parenting; high paternal involvement; and frequent visitation by and phone contact from the fathers. Children with few problematic beliefs at Time 2 regarding fear of abandonment and hope of reconciliation had mothers who functioned poorly at Time 1. Although the small sample size necessitates that the findings be viewed with caution, they support the view that children's divorce adjustment is related to children's own competencies, intrafamilial processes, and extrafamilial conditions.     

Masculinity, femininity, and psychosocial adjustment in medical students: a 2-year follow-up

As part of a longitudinal study of medical students, relations between masculinity and femininity and psychosocial well-being were investigated over a 21-month interval. Of a class of medical students, 82% (N = 99) completed measures of masculinity and femininity during orientation and, 21 months later, completed a broad array of measures of psychological well-being, interpersonal functioning, humanistic attitudes toward patient care, and alcohol consumption. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses with interaction terms revealed main effects of masculinity on self-esteem, extraversion, and confidence, and main effects of femininity on hedonic capacity, interpersonal satisfaction, sharing of personal problems, and alcohol consumption. Little evidence for additive or balance androgyny formulations was found. Findings for masculinity were consistent with earlier findings from this study and others, but they were weaker in magnitude. Findings for femininity were surprisingly robust and enrich the construct validity of this measure. Measures of impaired mood and of alcohol and drug impairment were also studied in relation to masculinity and femininity. Both variables contribute to the prediction of depressed mood; femininity also contributes to the prediction of drug involvement. Neither scale has sufficient sensitivity or specificity to be used by itself as a test of impairment.     

Relations between social comparison orientation and adjustment in Chinese adolescents: Moderating effects of initial adjustment status

This 1‐year longitudinal study examined relations between social comparison orientation (SCO) and socioemotional adjustment and academic achievement. A sample of Grades 7 and 8 students (N = 336, initial M age = 14.08 years) in China participated in the study. Data were collected from self‐reports, peer assessments and school records. It was found that early SCO positively contributed to later academic achievement. Moreover, the relations between early SCO and later socioemotional adjustment were moderated by the initial status of adolescents. Specifically, SCO was positively associated with social competence and negatively associated with depression in initially competent and well‐adjusted adolescents, but the pattern of the associations was opposite in initially incompetent and poorly adjusted adolescents. The results indicate that whereas SCO may contribute directly to academic achievement, its contributions to socioemotional development might depend on adolescents' initial status in adjustment.     

Behavioral and social development of children born extremely premature: 5-year follow-up

A cohort of extremely prematurely born children and matched term controls was assessed at 5 years of age. The parents completed a questionnaire on their behavioral and social development. The purpose was to illuminate whether the children's general intellectual ability and parental sensitivity were associated with behavioral and social development. The index children exhibited more hyperactive behavior and had poorer social skills than the controls. Lower Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) was associated with outward reacting and hyperactive behavior and poorer social skills. Sensitive parenting was associated with less outward reacting and less hyperactive behavior. When controlling for differences in FSIQ and parental sensitivity, the index children persisted to have an increased risk of exhibiting hyperactive behavior but not poorer social skills. The index children with normal intellectual development, however, did not exhibit more behavioral problems or poorer social skills than the control children did.     

Goal instability and later life adjustment

A series of analyses on the goal instability personality construct, as measured by the Goal Instability Scale (GIS), was conducted to establish the construct validity of goal instability as it relates to older adults. This construct was derived from Heinz Kohut's psychology of the self. The sample consisted of a total of 157 voluntary early retirees representing a cross section of worker types from a manufacturing industry. In the first analysis, a series of confirmatory factor analyses supported the hypothesis that the 10-item GIS measures a unitary construct. In the second analysis, GIS was found to be similar across age groups. These findings enhance the conceptual clarity of the goal instability construct and its relevance with regard to older adults. Goal instability may represent 1 negative aspect of a quest for self-continuity.     

Associations of depression status and hopelessness with blood pressure: a 24-year follow-up study

Hypertension is estimated to cause 12.8% of all deaths worldwide. Both literature and well-supported cognitive models indicate that hopelessness predicts depressive symptoms. This study aimed to test whether high levels of hopelessness are associated with increased blood pressure, as well as whether depression acts as a mediator between hopelessness and blood pressure. Data from the original 24-year longitudinal Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study (ECA) were analyzed via linear regression (N = 917; 60.3% female; 62.9% European American; mean age = 42.96 years, SD = 16.94). Hopelessness was found to have a significant direct relationship with systolic blood pressure (SBP, p < .05), but not with diastolic blood pressure (DBP, p > .05); while depression had no significant direct relationship with SBP or with DBP. Overall, findings indicated that hopelessness has a significant relationship with SBP. Limitations and implications are discussed.     

The adjustment of social trust and Internet use on cognitive bias in social status: Perspective of performance perception

People in different social statuses have different perceptions due to differences in cognition. Combined with the characteristics of public behaviour and cognition, this study examined the impact of the widespread cognitive biases in social status on performance perception. This study used the ordinary least squares model to verify that the cognitive bias in social status has a significant positive impact on the perception of social governance performance. At the same time, a moderated mediation model was constructed to verify that social trust plays a partial mediating role in the influence mechanism of cognitive bias in social status on the perception of social governance performance. The use of the Internet significantly inhibited the influence of cognitive bias in social status on the perception of social governance performance. Although it also weakened the influence of cognitive bias in social status on social trust, the moderating effect on the mediating effect is not obvious. This study verifies and analyses the internal relationship and mechanism of social status cognition deviation and perception of social governance performance from multidisciplinary dimensions, which enriches the social cognition theory of social status, and expands the research on the perception of social governance performance.     

Early tactile experience of low birth weight children: links to later mental health and social adaptation

The purpose of this study was twofold: to determine (1) the degree to which specific qualities of maternal touch may contribute to the low birth weight infant's emotional and behavioural problems as well as social adaptation, and (2) the relationship between maternal touch and a mother's other caregiving behaviour. The sample included 114 socioculturally diverse infants and their mothers who were videotaped during an infant feeding when the baby was 3 months old. This videotape was analysed to assess dimensions of mother–infant interaction, including maternal touch. Data on perinatal risk and the mother's acceptance versus rejection of the infant were also acquired. Social adaptation and emotional/behavioural problems were measured when the child was 2 years of age. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that maternal touch accounted for 15% of the variance in the likelihood of a child having emotional/behavioural problems at age 2. Children who received more nurturing touch had significantly fewer internalizing problems (such as depression) while children receiving both more frequent touch and harsh touch had more externalizing problems (such as aggressive behaviour). Infants who were less responsive to their caregivers were especially at risk of developing aggressive/destructive behaviour as a result of frequent touch. But less responsive infants also appeared to benefit most from greater use of diverse types of maternal touch, accounting for 6% of the variance in superior adaptive behaviour at age 2. Nurturing touch was the only quality that showed even a modest relationship to other caregiving behaviour, suggesting that touch may play a distinct role in the infant's psychosocial development. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

School adjustment in adolescence for previously rejected,average and popular children

Background: Earlier research shows that peer‐rejected children are at risk of a wide range of subsequent adjustment difficulties in different social contexts, as, for example, in school. Aims: This study investigated the academic performance and school adjustment in adolescence of children with different peer status in middle childhood. Sample: Age 15 boys and girls (N=90), who at age 10 and 11 were sociometrically rejected, popular, or of average popularity in their school class. Methods: School marks, intelligence scales, and self‐reports were used as adjustment measures. School dropout rate for boys was also included. Results: The academic performance and intelligence level of rejected boys and girls were short of the standards of children from the other status groups, while the scores of popular boys and girls were of superior standard. There were some slight indications that rejected girls (but not rejected boys) had negative attitudes towards school and schoolwork, and that popular girls had positive school attitudes. The school dropout rate of rejected boys was much higher than that of other boys. Conclusions: The results show that the rejected children are a risk group for school problems also over a long period of time. Considering the important developmental aspects of the adolescence years, there appear to be good reasons, therefore, to worry about the future adulthood adjustment of peer‐rejected children.     

Rorschach test findings at the beginning of treatment and 2 years later, with a 30-year follow-up

In this article, I report a case containing 2 Rorschach assessments-the first (R1) 30 years ago at the beginning of a 4-year period of psychotherapy and the second (R2) 2 years later. I also recently contacted the patient to obtain information about his life during the 26 years since termination. This report examines the 2 Rorschach protocols-combining the Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 2003) structural summaries with thematic content analysis-in relation to the patient's history, treatment, and 30-year outcome. I focus on the change between R1 and R2, particularly the shift from an introversive to an ambitent EB and a corresponding shift from 6 Y responses on R1 to 6 m responses on R2. In the clinical interpretation, I considered these shifts in a context of the patient's patterns of managing destabilization and overstimulation.     

Hypnotherapy and cognitive behaviour therapy of acute stress disorder: a 3-year follow-up

The long-term benefits of cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for trauma survivors with acute stress disorder were investigated by assessing patients 3 years after treatment. Civilian trauma survivors (n=87) were randomly allocated to six sessions of CBT, CBT combined with hypnosis, or supportive counselling (SC), 69 completed treatment, and 53 were assessed 2 years post-treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. In terms of treatment completers, 2 CBT patients (10%), 4 CBT/hypnosis patients (22%), and 10 SC patients (63%) met PTSD criteria at 2-years follow-up. Intent-to-treat analyses indicated that 12 CBT patients (36%), 14 CBT/hypnosis patients (46%), and 16 SC patients (67%) met PTSD criteria at 2-year follow-up. Patients who received CBT and CBT/hypnosis reported less re-experiencing and less avoidance symptoms than patients who received SC. These findings point to the long-term benefits of early provision of CBT in the initial month after trauma.     

Socioeconomic status in childhood and adulthood: associations with dispositional optimism and pessimism over a 21-year follow-up

We examined whether dispositional optimism and pessimism (overall LOT-R and optimism and pessimism component scores) of 694 adults aged 24 and 27 were associated with socioeconomic status (SES) measured concurrently and in childhood at ages 3 and 6. SES measures included education, occupational status and unemployment, and income. Concurrent adulthood SES was associated with the overall LOT-R and optimism and the pessimism component scores. Childhood family SES predicted overall LOT-R and pessimism component scores, even after controlling statistically for the adulthood SES. Social mobility between SES of family of origin and current SES also influenced the scores. The current findings suggest that the foundation of dispositional optimism and pessimism is related to early SES of the family.     

社交退缩与儿童的社会适应之间的关系

本研究的目的是探讨社交退缩与儿童的社会适应之间的关系。 共有145名11岁儿童(M=129个月,SD=6.5个月,60名男孩,85名女孩)参与了本研究。本研究运用实验室观察程序,采用儿童游戏观察量表(Play Observation Scale)对儿童在两个自由游戏情景中的社交退缩行为进行编码,采用教师报告法和儿童自我报告法测量了儿童的适应情况。研究结果发现,焦虑退缩行为更多的与男孩的适应问题有关,而安静退缩更多的与女孩的适应问题如孤独感、抑郁等有关。结果表明社交退缩的各个亚型与其社会适应之间的关系是不同的,且性别在其中起着调节作用。