The Measurement of Perimenstrual Distress

This study was undertaken to explore whether the implicit requirement of phase comparison in menstrual research influences the data obtained. One hundred fifty Israeli women responded to the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire in an altered procedure. They rated their experience of behaviors and feelings during the nonmenstrual phase. Later, on a separate form, they rated their experience of the same behaviors and feelings during the menstrual and premenstrual phases. With this altered procedure, nonmenstrual distress scores were consistently higher than the perimenstrual scores. This pattern of results is the reverse of what most studies using the questionnaire have shown and does not seem to justify treating the perimenstrual period as especially problematic.     

Effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression measured in the laboratory

This study investigated the effects of menstrual cycle phase on aggression in two groups of women, which differed in the severity of their self-reported perimenstrual symptoms. A low- and a high-symptom group were recruited using the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) to define the groups. Twenty-two subjects (11 low and 11 high symptom) participated across one menstrual cycle: during the premenstrual, menstrual, midfollicular, and ovulatory phases. The Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm was used to assess aggression on each day of participation. There were three main findings; a) rates of aggressive responding did not vary across phases of the menstrual cycle; b) the high-symptom group emitted higher rates of aggressive responding across the menstrual cycle than did the low-symptom group; and c) rates of aggressive responding correlated with the MDQ's behavioral and psychological scales and not the somatic scales. These findings indicate that the menstrual cycle phase does not differentially affect this laboratory measure of aggression. The differences found between the two symptom groups parallel a few reports indicating that women who differ in retrospectively reported mood and behavioral changes related to their menstrual cycle also differ on a number of other psychometric measures. Aggr. Behav. 24:9–26, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Using Pictures to Evoke Spiritual feelings in Breast Cancer Patients: Development of a New Paradigm for Neuroimaging Studies

This study was designed to develop and validate a method for enhancing spiritual feelings, particularly in women who have received a diagnosis of breast cancer. The protocol specifically was developed to be used in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. Eighteen breast cancer survivors rated pictures for their ability to enhance feelings of spirituality, happiness, and sadness. Results indicate that presenting carefully selected pictures with spiritual content (e.g., nature scenes, people engaged in contemplative behaviors) can effectively enhance spiritual feelings among breast cancer survivors. Future fMRI studies will explore the use of the protocol developed in this study for investigating neural activity during spiritual feelings and states.     

神经质程度和月经周期对女性主观情绪和生理反应的影响

分别选取两组神经质程度高、低女性16名和25名, 考察两组被试在月经周期不同阶段(经期、卵泡晚期、黄体中晚期)的激素(雌二醇、孕酮)波动以及观看情绪视频(中性、搞笑、悲伤、愤怒)的主观情绪感受和生理反应的差异。结果显示高神经质女性在月经周期中对负性情绪视频的主观情绪和生理反应变化明显, 黄体中晚期对愤怒视频主观情绪体验更低, 对悲伤视频生理反应更小, 而低神经质女性的情绪反应不受月经周期影响。研究表明高神经质女性的情绪反应更易受月经周期影响, 这可能与其对孕酮水平波动的敏感性高有关。     

Pain perception across the menstrual cycle phases in women with chronic pain

The menstrual cycle has been reported to alter pain perception but the patterns differ among studies. It has been reported that estrogens may influence somatic sensory processes. The present aim was to investigate whether the perception of pain varies by phases of the menstrual cycle. 20 women with chronic low pain volunteered to participate and were asked to rate their pain each day during three successive menstrual cycles. The menstrual cycle was divided into four and five phases to be able to compare results. Analysis showed there were phase differences in pain ratings during the menstrual cycle. Regardless of whether the menstrual cycle was divided into four or five phases, women rated pain significantly higher in the menstrual and premenstrual phases than in the midmenstrual and ovulatory phases. This is consistent with other studies showing less pain sensitivity during phases of the menstrual cycle associated with high estrogen. Women with high pain frequency reported more frequently a passive coping style and catastrophizing thoughts.     

Symptom Attributions Across the Menstrual Cycle in Women with Panic Disorder

Women with panic disorder are likely to experience greater menstrual-specific symptoms (e.g., headaches, cramps) as well as more panic/anxiety-related symptoms (e.g., dizziness, faintness, chest pain, heart pounding), and may be more likely to experience these symptoms during the premenstrual phase. This study examines the attributions women make about the somatic and affective symptoms they experience during the menstrual cycle. Using a 30-day prospective design, women with and without panic disorder monitored physical and affective symptoms. Participants reported on severity of various symptoms and a primary cause for each symptom (menstrual cycle-related, panic/anxiety related, stress-related, health-related). Women with panic disorder reported more panic attacks during the premenstrual phase compared to other cycle phases. They also reported more severe affective and panic symptoms during the premenstrual phase compared to other phases, but did not significantly differ from the comparison group in menstrual symptom severity across the three cycle phases. Although women with panic disorder attributed more panic/anxiety-related causes for their symptoms across the menstrual cycle, they were able to discriminate between panic/anxiety causes and menstrual cycle-related causes. Women with panic disorder may benefit for therapy that focuses on their exacerbation of panic symptoms during the premenstrual phase.     

Stress responsivity among dysmenorrheic women at different phases of their menstrual cycle: more ado about nothing

Dysmenorrheic and nondysmenorrheic women in the follicular, luteal and menstrual phase of their menstrual cycle participated in a stressful laboratory procedure. Pulse rate, pulse volume and skin conductance were measured continuously during baseline, during confrontation of three stressful tasks (i.e. stress-reactivity periods) and following each confrontation (i.e. stress-recovery periods). The hypothesis that dysmenorrheic Ss in the menstrual phase of their cycle would show greater stress responsitivity was generally not confirmed, and the broader contention that women differ in their stress responsivity as a function of their menstrual cycle phase was shown to be of questionable validity.     

Calories,beauty, and ovulation: The effects of the menstrual cycle on food and appearance-related consumption

The menstrual cycle has been largely ignored within the consumer research literature. Using a survey panel, women's food and appearance-related consumption was tracked for 35 consecutive days. As predicted, food-related desires, dollars spent, and eating behaviors were greater during the luteal (non-fertile) phase, whereas appearance-related desires, dollars spent, and beautification behaviors increased during the fertile phase. Dollars spent on products unrelated to food or beautification were not significantly influenced by the menstrual cycle. Hence, women's consumption desires, preferences, and dollars spent in evolutionarily relevant product categories (food and mating) fluctuate across their ovulatory cycle. Branding-related implications are briefly discussed.     

Impact of distressed and aggressive behavior

Two studies examined the hypothesis that distressed behavior induces negative emotions in others but also prompts solicitousness and deters aggression. In Study 1, 48 marital dyads rated various behaviors in terms of their feelings and reactions toward a spouse engaging in each behavior. Distressed behavior prompted both negative and solicitous emotions, but deterred hostile reactions. Aggressive behavior prompted negative feelings and hostile and argumentative reactions. In Study 2, 41 couples rated videotaped examples of a woman engaging in distressed, aggressive, or neutral behavior, with variations in verbal content and nonverbal affect. Examples of distressed behavior prompted more negative feelings and more solicitous feelings than neutral behavior. Aggressive examples prompted more negative feelings and hostile reactions. The studies indicate the importance of distinguishing between distressed and aggressive behavior.     

The impostor phenomenon: self-perceptions, reflected appraisals, and interpersonal strategies

Three studies tested theoretical assumptions regarding the impostor phenomenon. In Study 1, participants completed measures of impostorism, rated themselves, and indicated how they thought other people regarded them. Contrary to standard conceptualizations of impostorism, high impostors were characterized by a combination of low self-appraisals and low reflected appraisals. Study 2 was an experiment designed to determine whether the behaviors associated with the impostor phenomenon are interpersonal strategies. Participants were told that they were expected to perform either better or worse than they had previously predicted on an upcoming test, then expressed their reactions anonymously or publicly. High impostors expressed lower performance expectations than low impostors only when their responses were public. When expectations for performance were low, participants high in impostorism responded differently under public than private conditions. Study 3 examined the possibility that high scores on measures of impostorism may reflect two types of impostors--true impostors (who believe that others perceive them too positively) and strategic impostors (who only claim that they are not as good as other people think). The results did not support this distinction; however, evidence for the strategic nature of impostorism was again obtained. Although people may experience true feelings of impostorism, these studies suggest that the characteristics attributed to so-called impostors are partly interpersonal, self-presentational behaviors designed to minimize the implications of poor performance.     

Socially Anxious and Peer-Victimized Preadolescents: “Doubly Primed” for Distress?

We examined independent and interactive associations linking preadolescents' socially anxious feelings and peer victimization experiences with their social behaviors (rated by parents and teachers) and psychophysiological arousal during lab simulations of salient peer stress situations in preadolescence (peer evaluation and peer rebuff). Sixty-three preadolescents and one parent per preadolescent participated. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), skin conductance level (SCL), and heart rate (HR) were assessed during peer stress situations. Preadolescents provided reports of social anxiety; preadolescents and parents reported on peer victimization; and parents and teachers rated prosocial and aggressive behaviors. Peer victimization moderated associations between social anxiety and both physiological arousal and social-behavior problems. As hypothesized, social anxiety was more strongly associated with lower RSA, higher HR, and higher aggressive behavior among preadolescents who experienced higher levels of peer victimization, compared to preadolescents who experienced lower levels of peer victimization.     

Trajectories and Processes of Symptom Change Over Time in Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder

Despite ample evidence for Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) as an effective treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD), close examination of the trajectory of change in BPD symptoms over the course of DBT is lacking. There also remain questions regarding the directionality of changes in different domains of BPD symptoms, such as improvements in dysfunctional behaviors and thoughts/feelings. In order to provide more fine-grained information about the treatment process in DBT, the current study aimed to (a) examine the trajectories of change of BPD-associated negative thoughts/feelings and behaviors, and positive behaviors, and (b) test the temporal relationship between changes in negative behaviors and thoughts/feelings. The study involved 55 adult clients attending a 6-month outpatient DBT program for BPD who completed assessments of BPD symptoms every four sessions. Growth curve models suggested that clients experienced a faster rate of decrease in negative behaviors during the initial phase of treatment, whereas steady rates of improvement were found for negative thoughts/feelings and positive behaviors, respectively, throughout treatment. Further, a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model found that the within-person fluctuations in negative behaviors preceded the within-person changes in negative thoughts/feelings at a subsequent time point during the later phase of treatment, whereas within-person fluctuations in thoughts/feelings were followed by changes in negative behaviors at the beginning and end of the treatment. These results highlighted the complexity of patterns and processes of change in BPD symptomatology during the course of DBT.     

Men's and women's attitudes and beliefs about the menstrual cycle

Recent analyses of menstrual distress have emphasized sociocultural influences. Yet beliefs and attitudes of men—an important socialization force in the lives of women—have received little attention. In the present study, 239 students (156 females and 83 males) from three colleges filled out a survey on expectations for menstrual and premenstrual symptoms, attitudes about mensturation, sources of menstrual-related information, and effects of menstruation upon daily activities. The major findings are as follows: First, although both males and females believed women experience certain cycle-related symptoms, females reported that women experience more severe menstrual and premenstrual symptoms (when compared to intermenstrual ones) than males reported, while males believed women experience more severe menstrual than premenstrual symptoms than females believed. Second, males learned less about menstruation from the majority of possible informational sources and rated most sources as more negative than did the females. Third, males believed that menstruation had more of an effect on women's moods and had a more debilitating effect on women's lives than did females. Fourth, females rated menstruation as more bothersome than did males. Fifth, more males believed their mothers experienced menstrual irritability and moodiness, while more females believed their mothers experienced swelling. The findings are discussed in terms of the role of socialization and the type of information imparted to males and females in America today.     

Understanding Infidelity: How Perceptions of Infidelity Behaviors Vary by Sex and One's Own Infidelity Experiences

This study examines (1) how previous history with infidelity influences perceptions of cheating behaviors, and (2) sex's impact on ratings of cheating behaviors. A total of 83 undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses volunteered to participate through an anonymous online survey. Participants rated sexual and emotional behaviors on a scale that ranged from “always” to “never,” indicating if the behavior was perceived as cheating. Individuals that had previous experience with infidelity either as the involved or non-involved partner rated sexual behaviors higher than those with no experience with infidelity, while non-involved partners rated emotional behaviors higher than the rest. Overall, females rated sexual and emotional behaviors higher than males. Non-involved males rated sexual behaviors higher than non-involved female partners. However, males who have not committed an infidelity rated sexual behaviors lower than any other group. The results provide further evidence that perceptions of cheating behaviors are influenced by gender and one's own history of infidelity, including both involved and non-involved roles.     

WOMEN'S APPRAISALS OF SEXUAL-ASSAULT RISK IN DATING SITUATIONS

This study investigated how 165 female college students appraised their sexual-assault risk in a hypothetical dating situation. A 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment investigating the effects of male-dating-partner characteristics, story character beverage consumption, and perspective on women's risk appraisals was conducted. Multivariate analyses of variance were performed to test hypotheses regarding the feelings of the dating woman and the occurrence of sexual behaviors. Although the dating woman was rated as feeling more vulnerable on dates when alcohol was consumed, alcohol consumption did not influence ratings regarding the dating man committing nonconsensual sexual acts. Nonconsensual sexual behaviors were rated as more probable when the man had rape-congruent characteristics and when the participants were judging another woman rather than themselves. These findings suggest that women are partially accurate in making sexual-assault risk appraisals and thus may benefit from rape prevention education that specifically targets their inaccuracies.     

More alike than meets the eye: Perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its display

This research investigated perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its outward display. Subjects imagined a female friend or a male friend in a series of brief situations, each of which was said to elicit a particular subjective experience in the friend. After each situation, they estimated the extent to which the friend would experience the feeling, and also the extent to which the friend would display the feeling to others. Results confirmed two related predictions, both based on attribution research: First, perceived gender-related differences in the outward display of an experience were generally greater than perceived gender-related differences in the subjective experience itself. Males and females, that is, were generally viewed as more alike in their internal feelings than in their overt behaviors. Second, perceived female/male differences in outward display varied more with the feeling elicited by the situation than perceived female/male differences in subjective experience. Specifically, subjects estimated that females would display communal, socially desirable feelings more than males and self-oriented, less desirable feelings less than males, but that females would experience both categories of feelings somewhat more intensely than males would experience them. In addition to confirming these two predictions, our results also indicated that the sex viewed as having greater hidden feelings—operationalized as the amount by which estimations of subjective experience exceeded estimations of display—also varied with the situation. With communal, highly desirable feelings, males were viewed as having greater hidden feelings, but with self-oriented, less desirable feelings, females were viewed as having greater hidden feelings. This pattern did not interact with gender of perceiver. The data, however, indicated that female perceivers tended to rate both males and females higher on measures of both experience and display than males did, and that male perceivers tended to perceive greater gender differences than females did.     

Relationships between locus of control,health value,and preventive health behaviors among women

This study examines the relationships between locus of control expectancies, rated health value, and reported participation in preventive health behaviors among a healthy sample of undergraduate women. The prediction that participation in preventive health behaviors would be a joint function of an internal health-related locus of control belief and holding health in high value was not supported. Instead, individuals who valued their health reported participating in a greater number of health-enhancing behaviors compared to those who valued their health less. Respondents' scores on a health value scale in combination with their rated health status proved to be better predictors of health behaviors than their locus of control beliefs. Limitations of locus of control research with young, healthy individuals are discussed and further investigation into the utility and validity of health value scales is recommended.     

Psychological and Physychological Changes with the Menstrual Cycle: Implications for Counselling

Throughout the reproductive years, from around age 13 to about 5o, the menstrual cycle provides continual, mainly positive, changes in the internal environment of women. This cycle of change is an integral and influential part of normal existence. Knowledge of the reproductive cycle and of its effects is essential to a full understanding of women. This paper describes each phase of the cycle in terms of broad psychological and physiological changes. Although personal and social events will clearly affect each woman's experience, it is clear that a background climate is set by the cycle which predisposes towards certain feelings and behaviour.With information and advice, not only can there be great benefit from the whole menstrual cycle, but any distress in the premenstrual days can be alleviated. More serious menstrual disorder should be appropriately investigated, preferably with continued counselling support.The counsellor must first discover whether any menstrual disorder is a central problem, or possibly an exacerbating factor. Occasionally the cycle is made a focus for problems which have a quite different basis. In all cases the counsellor can help women to turn to good account a biological cycle which is predominantly favourable.     

Premenstrual symptoms: the role of irrational thinking.

104 women, between the ages of 18 and 45 years, were surveyed to investigate the relationship between premenstrual symptomatology, as measured by the Modified Menstrual Distress Questionnaire, and irrational thinking, as measured by the General Attitude and Belief Scale. The women who reported greater premenstrual symptomatology also reported significantly higher scores in the "need for comfort" irrationality subscale. This indicated that these women had particular difficulty dealing with hassles and the resulting feelings of tension and irritability in the premenstruum. It was suggested that the absence of significant effects for other rationality-irrationality subscales could be associated with testing at different times during the menstrual cycle. Irrationality, like other conditions (such as anxiety and depression) prevalent in the premenstruum, could change in intensity across phases of the menstrual cycle.