Men's and women's perceptions of effort during progressive-resistance strength training

Previously sedentary adult men (M age=34.3 yr.) and women (M age =41.8 yr.) participated in a 25-wk., 7-station circuit-training program designed to evaluate the effects of a low-volume (1 set) and a high-volume (3 set) exercise regimen on the development of muscular strength. Participants completed the Borg scale of perceived exertion immediately following a chest-press exercise and a leg-extention exercise. Neither exercise volume nor sex classification was related to participants' ratings of exertion; however, exertion ratings for both exercises increased over the course of training.     

Regulation of exercise intensity using ratings of perceived exertion during passive visual distraction

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if passive visual distraction altered ability to regulate exercise intensity as, assessed by ratings of perceived exertion during a 30-min. treadmill run. 10 trained females (VO2max, 52.7 ml.kg-1.min.-1) performed a graded exercise test on a treadmill to assess maximal aerobic power and rating of perceived exertion, oxygen uptake (VO2), heart rate, and running velocity at the 2.5 mmol.L-1 blood lactate concentration. Subjects then used the target rating of perceived exertion to regulate exercise intensity during a control condition, and two treatment runs with passive visual distractions. During the treatment sessions, the subjects ran on a treadmill while viewing a high-action or a low-action video with no audio. The subjects were allowed to adjust the treadmill speed throughout the run to maintain the target rating of perceived exertion; however, subjects were not allowed to view the speed setting. There were no significant differences in blood lactate concentration among the conditions for the control, low action, high action, or graded exercise test (p < or = .05). No significant differences in VO2 or running velocity were found within or among the 30-min. treatment runs and the graded exercise test. Heart rate at 5 min. of exercise during control (158 +/- 3 b.min.-1), low action (158 +/- 3 b.min.-1), and high action (159 +/- 2 b.min.-1) was significantly lower than the graded exercise test (169 +/- 3 b.min.-1). Based on the data collected, visual passive distraction did not alter regulation of intensity using ratings of perceived exertion during a 30-min. treadmill run.     

Common and specific process factors in cardiac rehabilitation: independent and interactive effects of the working alliance and self-efficacy.

OBJECTIVE: Therapeutic processes in cardiac rehabilitation programs are virtually unexamined. Models were tested by which changes in the working alliance between patient and staff (agreement on goals/tasks; emotional bond) may affect outcomes in conjunction with changes in patient self-efficacy to change their diets and increase exercise. DESIGN: Cardiac patients (n = 79) participated in a 12-week program, and completed assessments at early, mid, and late treatment. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Changes in cardiac depression, physical health, perceived exertion during exercise, rate/pressure product at submaximal exercise tolerance, weight loss, return to work, total fat intake. RESULTS: Early-treatment changes in agreement on goals/tasks were related to changes in psychosocial factors and perceived exertion during exercise independent of effects of changes in self-efficacy. Early-treatment changes in goals/tasks and self-efficacy interacted to predict changes in cardiorespiratory fitness, weight loss, and return to work such that patients high on both goals/tasks and self-efficacy showed the most gains. CONCLUSION: Sound therapeutic relationships between patients and staff may play an important role in facilitating the achievement of a wide-range of salutary outcomes during cardiac rehabilitation.     

The transactional psychobiological nature of cognitive appraisal during exercise in environmentally stressful conditions

Background and Purpose: Successful adaptation to the stress of physical exertion in adverse environmental conditions (heat, cold, high altitude) is of great concern when optimal performance within safe parameters is the goal. The perception of the psychophysical demands imposed by the stressful situation and the perceived capability to cope with these demands is a process that can dramatically alter the intensity of the ensuing physiological activation. Thus, exercise in environmentally stressful conditions provides an excellent model for examining the relationship between the cognitive appraisal of the physical stress and the ensuing stress response. A brief review of the research on cognitive appraisals during exercise in stressful environments provides evidence of the connection between cognitive appraisals and the stress response during exercise under environmental stress and demonstrates a need for a transactional psychobiological model proposed in this paper. This model attributes a central role to the continuous cognitive appraisal of the situation by the individual.Methods: Computer searches of psychological, sport science, and medical databases using the terms exercise, heat, cold, high altitude, environmental stress, and ratings of perceived exertion were conducted. Additionally, the reference citations in the obtained articles were searched for relevant studies. An abridged integrated review summarizes the critical findings and limitations. Furthermore, literature supporting the proposed transactional psychobiological model is presented.Results and Conclusions: Further investigation into the psychophysical and the affective responses to exercise in adverse environmental conditions can be facilitated through the utilization of the proposed transactional psychobiological model.     

Perceived exertion during resistance exercise by children

This pilot study examined the validity of a new scale of perceived exertion during acute bouts of resistance exercise in young children. The researchers developed an 11-point numerical scale with five pictures representing youths at various levels of exertion while lifting weights. 26 children (M age 10.1 +/- 1.2 yr.) performed one set of 10 repetitions at 35%, 55%, and 75% of their one-repetition maximum on the chest press and leg press exercises using child-size weight training machines. Scaling procedures for the perceptual anchors on the perceived exertion scale were based on one repetition maximum testing. Children could use this scale to translate into numbers their perceptions of physical exertion during upper and lower body resistance exercise. Perceived exertion distributed as a positive linear function of the percent of one repetition maximum on the chest press and leg press exercises (rs = .70 to .77), and perceived exertion increased significantly across all three exercise intensities on both exercises. These preliminary findings provide partial evidence for validation when this scale was used during resistance exercise with children. Additional validation regarding perceived exertion during resistance exercise with children is warranted.     

Ratings of Perceived Exertion by Women with Internal or External Locus of Control

Ratings of perceived exertion are frequently used to estimate the strain and effort experienced subjectively by individuals during various forms of physical activity. A number of factors, both physiological and psychological in origin, have been suggested to work as modifiers of the exertion perceived by the individual. It has been reported in non-sport-related research that individuals with an internal locus of control seem to pay more attention to relevant information and use the available information more adequately than individuals with an external locus of control. The reputed inferior information-processing abilities of externals compared with internals could possibly also influence the ratings of perceived exertion, with externals being less accurate in their ratings. Whether locus of control might be such a factor was investigated. Fifty women worked on an ergometer cycle at four different work loads. The results showed statistically significant differences in subjective ratings of perceived exertion between externals and internals, especially at heavier work loads. Such differences might be because of unequal information-processing abilities, as the observed discrepancies occurred at higher work intensities, when more cues are available for processing.     

The influence of sex-role orientation on ratings of perceived exertion

Previous research has shown that feminine-typed women have an aversion to strenuous physical activity and when engaging in cross-sex behavior may experience psychological distress. Given the growing interest in aerobic exercise, the present study was designed to test whether sex-role orientation mediated the report of physical exertion. Subjects were 33 college-aged women selected from three categories: masculine, feminine, and androgynous. Procedures required that each subject complete two one-hour testing sessions. The first session was employed to collect anthropometric data and to evaluate maximum aerobic capacity, while the second session consisted of subjects completing a preperformance affect scale and subsequently running for 30 minutes at a preestablished work intensity. Results revealed that those who were feminine-typed gave significantly higher exertional ratings than either the masculine or androgynous women. The fact that the feminine group was less positive about the task suggests that the observed perceptual differences may have been due to affective schemata which have been hypothesized to mediate the perception of pain.This article is based on a master's thesis by the first author, but the second author assumed primary responsibility for the preparation of the present article.     

Experimental evaluation of rehabilitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: short-term effects on exercise endurance and health status

Randomly assigned 119 adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to an 8-week comprehensive rehabilitation program or to an 8-week education control program. Comprehensive pulmonary rehabilitation included education, physical and respiratory therapy instruction, psychosocial support, and supervised exercise training; education control included biweekly classroom instruction and discussions on respiratory therapy, medical aspects of lung disease, clinical pharmacology, and diet, but no exercise training. Both groups received extensive physiological and psychosocial evaluation before and after the intervention. Six months after enrollment, patients randomly assigned to the rehabilitation program showed significant increases in exercise endurance, whereas patients randomly assigned to control program showed nonsignificant increases. Improvement in self-efficacy was correlated with improvements in exercise endurance.     

Use of ratings of perceived exertion to anticipate treadmill test termination in patients taking beta-blockers

This investigation identified a perceptually-based "warning zone" that can be used to anticipate termination of treadmill tests administered to individuals taking beta-blockers. The use of ratings of perceived exertion to anticipate test termination may be valuable given the attenuation of heart rate associated with the use of this class of medication. Sixteen men with coronary artery disease participated in this investigation. Ratings of perceived exertion (Borg 6-20 Scale) were estimated during the last 15 sec. of each minute of a progressively incremented treadmill test. Tests were terminated when participants indicated they were too fatigued to continue. The time-to-test termination was determined from the point that participants estimated a rating of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 in order to determine the rating that was less than or equal to the time associated with a single exercise stage. A rating of 14 was associated with impending termination, which can be used as a "warning zone." The time to termination corresponding to a rating of 14 was 153.1 sec. (SD = 27.0). Participants exercised for 153.1 sec. (SE = 27.0) after estimating a rating of 14. Once a rating of 14 is reached, volitional test termination will occur before the next exercise stage is completed.     

The validity of using prior ratings of perceive exertion to regulate resistance exercise intensity

This investigation examined the validity of using ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) to regulate intensity during resistance exercise. 19 male (M age = 22.2 yr., SD = 2.7) and 19 female (M age = 21.4 yr., SD = 2.3) participants estimated exertion when performing the knee extension at 40% to 90% of one-repetition maximum. One week later, participants were asked to produce weights for the knee extension that elicited the feelings of exertion associated with 9, 13, and 17 on the Borg RPE scale. The weight produced at 9, 13, and 17 during the production session was compared to the weight lifted at each RPE during the estimation session. The effect sizes associated with the differences in weight lifted across sessions at each RPE were generally small in magnitude, especially at the higher intensities (ES = .40, -.09, .15, respectively). The results of this investigation support the use of RPE as a method of prescribing the intensity of resistance exercise.     

Influence of acetaminophen consumption on perceived exertion at the lactate concentration threshold

The purpose of this investigation was to study effects of acetaminophen consumption on ratings of perceived exertion and estimated time limit responses at the lactate threshold. 98 young regional to national level athletes performed a graded exhausting exercise on an outdoor running track to estimate their maximal aerobic velocity and the velocity associated with their lactate concentration threshold. Urine (30 mL) was collected during this test and analysed for numerous substances. During urinary screening for doping substances, 9 acetaminophen consumers (9.2%) among the 98 included athletes were detected. These acetaminophen consumers have significantly lower perceived exertion at velocity corresponding to the lactate concentration threshold than nonconsumers (11.9 +/- 2.1 vs 13.6 +/- 2.1, respectively) although they were at the same relative exercise intensity. This result shows that acetaminophen consumption may have mediated the perceived exertion response at the lactate concentration threshold. This may then suggest that the pain induced by training load could be a factor in use of self-prescribed pain relievers. Such consumption must be taken into account by medical staff, trainers, or educators who have to give information on the use and adverse effects of this substance and to propose palliative methods to their athletes.     

Differentiated perceptions of exertion: part II. relationship to local and central physiological responses

Differentiated ratings of perceived exertion in the legs and chest were compared to local and central physiological adjustments during submaximal cycle ergometer exercise. 50 male subjects performed three separate cycle ergometer tests. Power output was held constant at 840 kpm/min., while pedalling rate was randomly set at 40, 60, or 80 rpm. Differentiated reports of exertion from the legs were considered to be local signals and reports from the chest to be central signals. Ratings of exertion for the legs, chest and over-all body were each significantly higher at 40 rpm than 60 or 80 rpm. Heart rate, oxygen uptake, ventilation and respiratory rate were also higher at 40 rpm. Lactic acid, pH, and pCO2 were similar between pedalling rates. Lactic acid did not operate differentially to influence local perceptual signals from the legs. Central measures of respiratory and aerobic metabolic adjustments were consistent with the more intense regional report of chest exertion at 40 rpm.     

The effect of choice of exercise mode on psychological responses

Objectives: Choice has been linked to both motivation and psychological responses to exercise. This paper investigates participants’ psychological responses when they completed an exercise session where there was a high-preference exercise mode as opposed to a low-preference exercise mode. High- and low-preference were established by participants indicating their preferred choice of exercise from three standard modes used for aerobic work.Method: Participants were 20 low-active adults who exercised for 20 min on each mode of exercise (high-preference versus low-preference). Affect, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were recorded every 5 min during exercise, and affect and HR were assessed pre-exercise and 5 min post-exercise.Results: Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed condition and time main effects for affect sub-scales and RPE and a time main effect for HR. Affect sub-scales, RPE and HR generally increased over time. RPE, Fatigue and Psychological Distress were higher in the low-preference condition and positive well-being was higher in the high-preference condition.Conclusions: Affect and RPE were influenced by the preferred choice manipulation. Affect was more positive, and RPE lower, in the high-preference versus low-preference condition while work rate remained constant across conditions.     

Activity experiences shape perceived fitness trajectories: results from a 6-month randomized controlled trial in older women

In this study we addressed the subjective benefits of activity interventions that were designed to improve cognitive fitness in old age. Two hundred and fifty-nine women (aged 70-93 years) were randomized to participate in an exercise or a computer course or a control condition for 6 months. Subjective ratings of the perceived change of cognitive and physical fitness components were captured before, during, after the intervention interval, and at a 10-month follow-up. Positive and negative affect levels and objective cognitive fitness parameters served as possible covariates. Multilevel modeling revealed that the computer group rated memory and concentration as having improved at 4 months and again at 6 months. The exercise group, in contrast, perceived physical capacities as maintained or improved. The characteristics of the activity experience seem to determine the perceived fitness changes. We conclude that actual learning experiences improve one's self-concept of abilities.     

Effects of a self-regulation intervention on exercise are moderated by depressive symptoms: A quasi-experimental study

This study investigated whether a computer-based self-regulation intervention increases physical exercise in individuals with or without depressive symptoms. A total of 361 individuals in orthopedic rehabilitation, 36 of them with depressive symptoms, were recruited in Germany. In a quasi-experimental study, individuals were allocated to either a computer-based self-regulation intervention or an online questionnaire. Exercise was measured at the beginning of rehabilitation and six weeks after rehabilitation. Depressive symptoms were assessed at the end of rehabilitation. An analysis of covariance was conducted, controlling for exercise baseline, sex, and phase of assessment. A main effect for depressive symptoms (p = .005) and intervention group (p = .011), as well as a marginal interaction of intervention x depressive symptoms were found (p = .076). Results indicate that the self-regulation exercise intervention in an orthopedic rehabilitation setting seem to be only effective in non-depressed individuals. Future research should examine how health behavior change programs can be designed more effectively for individuals with depressive symptoms.     

Activity experiences shape perceived fitness trajectories: Results from a 6-month randomized controlled trial in older women

ABSTRACT

In this study we addressed the subjective benefits of activity interventions that were designed to improve cognitive fitness in old age. Two hundred and fifty-nine women (aged 70–93 years) were randomized to participate in an exercise or a computer course or a control condition for 6 months. Subjective ratings of the perceived change of cognitive and physical fitness components were captured before, during, after the intervention interval, and at a 10-month follow-up. Positive and negative affect levels and objective cognitive fitness parameters served as possible covariates. Multilevel modeling revealed that the computer group rated memory and concentration as having improved at 4 months and again at 6 months. The exercise group, in contrast, perceived physical capacities as maintained or improved. The characteristics of the activity experience seem to determine the perceived fitness changes. We conclude that actual learning experiences improve one's self-concept of abilities.     

Validity of perceptions during recovery from maximal exercise in men and women

The Borg Scale, widely used to measure perceptions of exercise, has not been validated for use during recovery. Heart rate was used as the validity criterion. 11 untrained men and 10 untrained women were run to exhaustion on a treadmill. Heart rate and recovery ratings were obtained at :15, :45, 1:15, 1:45, 2:30, 3:30 and 4:30 min. following exercise. No significant differences were observed between sexes for both heart rate and recovery ratings. Trend analysis showed recovery ratings to be linear between :45 and at 4:30 while heart rate is best described by two linear trends with a break point at 2:30. Percent recovery was significantly faster for recovery ratings at :45, 1:15, 1:45 and 4:30. Heart rate and recovery ratings were not significantly correlated at any time point. A perceptual scale should be designed which more closely approximates metabolic response during recovery.