计算机时代的书写心理学

计算机的普及使人们阅读及书写的能力降低, 这引发了社会对书写的关注。书写涉及大量高级神经活动, 与认知、人格、疾病等均有关联, 对个体发展也具有重要作用。现代书写心理学通过使用书写板等设备, 实现了对书写过程及结果的量化研究, 发现了书写速度、压力、握笔等指标与智力、认知负荷等的一些关联。未来对书写过程的研究可以进一步深入; 测量方面的研究成果可以应用到日常人机交互及教学、司法等实践中; 还可以研究用书写促进个体认知及人格发展的具体途径。     

Advances in graphonomics: studies on fine motor control, its development and disorders

During the past 20 years graphonomic research has become a major contributor to the understanding of human movement science. Graphonomic research investigates the relationship between the planning and generation of fine motor tasks, in particular, handwriting and drawing. Scientists in this field are at the forefront of using new paradigms to investigate human movement. The 16 articles in this special issue of Human Movement Science show that the field of graphonomics makes an important contribution to the understanding of fine motor control, motor development, and movement disorders. Topics discussed include writer's cramp, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, drug-induced parkinsonism, dopamine depletion, dysgraphia, motor development, developmental coordination disorder, caffeine, alertness, arousal, sleep deprivation, visual feedback transformation and suppression, eye-hand coordination, pen grip, pen pressure, movement fluency, bimanual interference, dominant versus non-dominant hand, tracing, freehand drawing, spiral drawing, reading, typewriting, and automatic segmentation.     

Representation and learning in motor action – Bridges between experimental research and cognitive robotics

To gain a better understanding of the functionality of representation and categorization in action and interaction, it is fundamental that researchers understand how movements are represented in long-term memory. It is our position that human motor control requires that our actions be planned and represented in terms of intended perceptual effects and future task demands, and that the individual has a well-structured mental representation of the task so that the movement can be carried out successfully. Basic Action Concepts (BACs) are identified as major building blocks of cognitive representation in long-term memory, which are cognitive tools used to master the functional demands of movement tasks. In this paper, we consider relevant issues in research methodology and present an experimental method that can be used to assess action-relevant representational structures. This method permits us to observe the strong relationship between cognitive representation and performance in manual action. For example, the specific differences in the mental representations of participants are strongly related to skill level, as well as biomechanical and task constraints. We then discuss results from our learning experiments, where we have examined the development and changes in cognitive representation over time. From these experiments we have found that cognitive reference structures include task-specific spatial information, which provides the basis for action control in skilled voluntary movement. We have implemented these results on various robotic platforms. We argue that the insights gained from various experimental approaches in the field of cognitive psychology and motor control enable researchers to explore the possibilities and limitations of artificial control architectures in robot systems. Finally, we argue that this is not a unidirectional process. Researchers from the field of cognitive psychology and motor control can profit from the advances in technological systems, which enhance the understanding of human motor control in skilled voluntary action.     

Spiral drawing performance as an indicator of fine motor function in people with multiple sclerosis

This study investigated spiral drawing performance as an indicator of fine motor function, as well as to gain insight into adaptive movement strategies used by people with multiple sclerosis (MS). Seven people with MS, nine younger controls (mean age of 20) and eight older controls (mean age of 40) drew spirals on a graphics tablet at a comfortable speed and size. Spirography (i.e., a subjective visual assessment of the static trace) revealed indications of reduced control of the pen for people with MS. Analysis of the movements showed that people with MS tended to draw the spirals slower and with less pen pressure than controls. All groups increased their speed and pressure along with spiral size, but this increase was much steeper for the controls. MS participants drew spirals with more variability around an ideal trajectory, highlighting fine motor control degradation. MS patients tended to use a smaller scaling ratio, resulting in smaller spirals for a given number of revolutions. The younger and older control groups drew the spirals in a similar manner, and age was not a significant factor in any of the analyses. It is argued that the relatively lower pressure used, and slower, smaller movements (particularly during the more difficult outer sections of the spiral) are in part an adaptive strategy used to reduce movement variability. These results demonstrate the utility of the analysis of spiral movements as an objective technique for assessing motor control degradation, which can compliment the subjective rating based on the static pen trace. As such, it can provide further insight into the biomechanical strategies used when performing fine movements.     

TEST ANXIETY AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE: THE ROLE OF MUSCULAR AND ATTENTIONAL DEMANDS*

In experiment 1, the attentional demands of two fine (finger movements) and two gross (arm movements) motor tasks were empirically determined. In experiment 2, the effects of test condition (stress) and anxiety trait on motor performance were analyzed. A significant interactive effect appeared: the performance of high-trait-anxious subjects was impaired under evaluative conditions in fine and/or attentionally demanding tasks, but not in gross and attentionally simple tasks. As test conditions and anxiety trait have proved to arouse physiological alterations and aversive cognitive representations, the selective performance impairment found can be attributed to interferences on finger effectors or proprioceptors and to attentional overload, respectively.     

Motor IOR revealed for reaching

Inhibition of return (IOR) is a spatial phenomenon that is thought to promote visual search functions by biasing attention and eye movements toward novel locations. Considerable research suggests distinct sensory and motor flavors of IOR, but it is not clear whether the motor type can affect responses other than eye movements. Most studies claiming to reveal motor IOR in the reaching control system have been confounded by their use of peripheral signals, which can invoke sensory rather than motor-based inhibitory effects. Other studies have used central signals to focus on motor, rather than sensory, effects in arm movements but have failed to observe IOR and have concluded that the motor form of IOR is restricted to the oculomotor system. Here, we show the first clear evidence that motor IOR can be observed for reaching movements when participants respond to consecutive central stimuli. This observation suggests that motor IOR serves a more general function than the facilitation of visual search, perhaps reducing the likelihood of engaging in repetitive behavior.     

儿童早期精细动作技能与认知发展的关系

精细动作技能指个体主要凭借手以及手指等部位的小肌肉或小肌肉群而产生的运动, 它可以为个体提供认知经验, 丰富认知对象, 进而促进个体对事物本质的认识。当个体需要将认知资源-注意在两个或多个任务之间进行分配时, 熟练的精细动作可以节省注意资源, 为高级的认知任务更好地服务; 精细动作与认知在发展中不断相互促进, 有些动作是某些认知习得或认知练习的先决条件; 精细动作技能可以预测小学低年级的学业成绩, 尤其是阅读和数学成绩。精细动作技能和认知发展的关系具有大脑神经发育基础, 它们在某种程度上共享相同的脑区, 如小脑和前额叶。因此, 某些认知损伤的病症可以通过精细动作的训练而得到改善和治疗。     

The effect of caffeine on handwriting movements in skilled writers

In laboratory tasks, caffeine has been shown to improve psychomotor performance. The aim of the present experiment was to assess the effects of caffeine on a skilled everyday life task in habitual caffeine consumers. The assessment of handwriting movements of 20 adults was performed following the administration of 0mg/kg (placebo), 1.5mg/kg, 3.0mg/kg or 4.5mg/kg of caffeine. A digitising tablet was used for the assessment of fine motor movements. Participants were asked to perform a simple writing task. Kinematic analysis of handwriting movements showed that, in comparison to placebo administration, high doses of caffeine (i.e., 4.5mg/kg) can produce improvements in handwriting as indicated by more fluent handwriting movements as well as an increase in maximum velocity and maximum positive and negative accelerations. The results suggest that higher doses of caffeine can enhance psychomotor performance.     

The death of handwriting: secondary effects of frequent computer use on basic motor skills

The benefits of modern technologies such as personal computers, in-vehicle navigation systems, and electronic organizers are evident in everyday life. However, only recently has it been proposed that the increasing use of personal computers in producing written texts may significantly contribute to the loss of handwriting skills. Such a fundamental change of human habits is likely to have generalized consequences for other basic fine motor skills as well. In this article, the authors provide evidence that the skill to produce precisely controlled arm-hand movements is related to the usage of computer keyboards in producing written text in everyday life. This result supports the notion that specific cultural skills such as handwriting and typing shape more general perceptual and motor skills. More generally, changing technologies are associated with generalized changes of the profile of basic human skills.     

Motor functions of the basal ganglia

Summary A study of movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease can provide an indication of the motor functions of the basal ganglia. Basal-ganglia diseases affect voluntary movement and can cause involuntary movement. Deficits are often manifested during the coordination of fine multi-joint movements (e. g., handwriting). The disturbances of motor control (e.g. akinesia, bradykinesia) caused by basal-ganglia disorders are illustrated. Data suggest that the basal ganglia play an important role in the automatic execution of serially ordered complex movements.     

The Embodied Penman: Effector‐Specific Motor–Language Integration During Handwriting

Several studies have illuminated how processing manual action verbs (MaVs) affects the programming or execution of concurrent hand movements. Here, to circumvent key confounds in extant designs, we conducted the first assessment of motor–language integration during handwriting—a task in which linguistic and motoric processes are co‐substantiated. Participants copied MaVs, non‐manual action verbs, and non‐action verbs as we collected measures of motor programming and motor execution. Programming latencies were similar across conditions, but execution was faster for MaVs than for the other categories, regardless of whether word meanings were accessed implicitly or explicitly. In line with the Hand‐Action‐Network Dynamic Language Embodiment (HANDLE) model, such findings suggest that effector‐congruent verbs can prime manual movements even during highly automatized tasks in which motoric and verbal processes are naturally intertwined. Our paradigm opens new avenues for fine‐grained explorations of embodied language processes.     

Assessment of fine motor skill in musicians and nonmusicians: differences in timing versus sequence accuracy in a bimanual fingering task

While professional musicians are generally considered to possess better control of finger movements than nonmusicians, relatively few reports have experimentally addressed the nature of this discrepancy in fine motor skills. For example, it is unknown whether musicians perform with greater skill than control subjects in all aspects of different types of fine motor activities. More specifically, it is not known whether musicians perform better than control subjects on a fine motor task that is similar, but not identical, to the playing of their primary instrument. The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy of finger placement and accuracy of timing in professional musicians and nonmusicians using a simple, rhythmical, bilateral fingering pattern and the technology that allowed separate assessment of these two parameters. Professional musicians (other than pianists) and nonmusicians were given identical, detailed and explicit instructions but not allowed physically to practice the finger pattern. After verbally repeating the correct pattern for the investigator, subjects performed the task on an electric keyboard with both hands simultaneously. Each subject's performance was then converted to a numerical score. While musicians clearly demonstrated better accuracy in timing, no significant difference was found between the groups in their finger placement scores. These findings were not correlated with subjects' age, sex, limb dominance, or primary instrument (for the professional musicians). This study indicates that professional musicians perform better in timing accuracy but not spatial accuracy while executing a simple, novel, bimanual motor sequence.     

Response bias in judging deceptive movements

Two not mutually exclusive explanations, perceptual and motor expertise, account for the finding that experts outperform novices in recognizing deceptive actions from bodily (kinematic) cues. The aim of the present study was twofold: First, we sought to examine the impact of motor and perceptual expertise on distinguishing deceptive and non-deceptive actions. Second, we tested the hypothesis that differences in perceptual judgments on deceptive movements vs. non-deceptive movements do not necessarily need to be caused by either perceptual or motor expertise differences, but can also be a result of response bias. Skilled handball players (field players and goalkeepers) and novices had to detect whether a penalty-taker shot or faked a shot at the goal. Signal detection theory (SDT) analysis revealed that skilled handball players outperformed novices in discriminating shots from fakes. No differences in perceptual sensitivity were found between the goalkeepers and the field players. However, SDT analysis showed that goalkeepers were significantly biased to judge movements as deceptive, while neither field players nor novices showed this response bias.     

Disentangling Fine Motor Skills’ Relations to Academic Achievement: The Relative Contributions of Visual-Spatial Integration and Visual-Motor Coordination

Recent research has established a connection between children's fine motor skills and their academic performance. Previous research has focused on fine motor skills measured prior to elementary school, while the present sample included children ages 5–18 years old, making it possible to examine whether this link remains relevant throughout childhood and adolescence. Furthermore, the majority of research linking fine motor skills and academic achievement has not determined which specific components of fine motor skill are driving this relation. The few studies that have looked at associations of separate fine motor tasks with achievement suggest that copying tasks that tap visual-spatial integration skills are most closely related to achievement. The present study examined two separate elements of fine motor skills—visual-motor coordination and visual-spatial integration—and their associations with various measures of academic achievement. Visual-motor coordination was measured using tracing tasks, while visual-spatial integration was measured using copy-a-figure tasks. After controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, IQ, and visual-motor coordination, and visual-spatial integration explained significant variance in children's math and written expression achievement. Knowing that visual-spatial integration skills are associated with these two achievement domains suggests potential avenues for targeted math and writing interventions for children of all ages.     

Depth perception by the active observer

The connection between perception and action has classically been studied in one direction only: the effect of perception on subsequent action. Although our actions can modify our perceptions externally, by modifying the world or our view of it, it has recently become clear that even without this external feedback the preparation and execution of a variety of motor actions can have an effect on three-dimensional perceptual processes. Here, we review the ways in which an observer's motor actions--locomotion, head and eye movements, and object manipulation--affect his or her perception and representation of three-dimensional objects and space. Allowing observers to act can drastically change the way they perceive the third dimension, as well as how scientists view depth perception.     

The distorted hand metric representation serves both perception and action

ABSTRACT

The representation of our body location is achieved by integrating sensorimotor inputs with information about our body size. Previous studies have shown that the metric representation of our hand, also called the body model, is distorted, namely overestimated in width and underestimated in length, although we are able to perform accurate fine movements. Considering the known dissociation between action-oriented and perception-oriented body representations, we asked whether the body model mainly serves body perception or whether it is also involved in movements. Twenty-one healthy adults were administered with the Localization Task (LT) which required the participants to localise the perceived position of their unseen hand by means of a stick held by their other hand, and the Proprioceptive Matching Task (PMT) which required the participants to match their perceived hand position with a visual target. LT and PMT maps were compared with the actual hand sizes. We found that the PMT map exhibited similar body model distortions, confirming that the body model is involved in motor programming. Furthermore, we observed that a partial adjustment of the distortions occurs in a motor condition.     

Individual differences in language development: relationship with motor skill at 21 months

Language development has long been associated with motor development, particularly manual gesture. We examined a variety of motor abilities – manual gesture including symbolic, meaningless and sequential memory, oral motor control, gross and fine motor control – in 129 children aged 21 months. Language abilities were assessed and cognitive and socio‐economic measures controlled for. Oral motor control was strongly associated with language production (vocabulary and sentence complexity), with some contribution from symbolic abilities. Language comprehension, however, was associated with cognitive and socio‐economic measures. We conclude that symbolic, working memory, and mirror neuron accounts of language–motor control links are limited, but that a common neural and motor substrate for nonverbal and verbal oral movements may drive the motor–language association.     

Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor grapho-motor ability

A sample of 125 children from grades 4 and 5 of two normal Dutch primary schools were investigated regarding the incidence of handwriting problems and other fine motor disabilities. Handwriting quality was assessed with the concise assessment method for children's handwriting (BHK) and the school questionnaire for teachers (SQT). Two groups of 12 children each were formed, one group of good writers and a group of poor writers selected from the lower performance range. The latter group was investigated in depth by assessing general and fine motor ability using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC test) and the Motor Performance School Readiness Test (MSRT). We hypothesised that poor handwriting is part of a wider neuromotor condition characterised by faster and cruder movements, lack of inhibition of co-movements and poor co-ordination of fine motor skills. To test the theory kinematic measures of drawing movements were collected on the flower-trail-drawing item of the M-ABC test. Moreover, the experimental group of poor writers received physiotherapy during a three-month period and was tested for handwriting proficiency after therapy and again nine months later. The results revealed that 34% of the group of 125 children displayed handwriting problems. The analysis confirmed that serious handwriting problems are accompanied by fine motor deficits. We suggest that in these children an enhanced level of neuromotor noise is compensated for by enhanced phasic stiffness of the limb system. This results in higher movement velocity and fewer velocity peaks. In the children who received physiotherapy the quality of handwriting improved.     

References for motor tasks--gender differences across age in motor performance: a meta-analysis

In 1985 we published a meta-analysis of gender differences across age in motor performance in Psychological Bulletin, but it did not include an indexing of each motor task to the references from which it was obtained. This paper provides a table listing the 20 motor tasks and the references from which data for each task were taken. The range of tasks was from fundamental movements (e.g., catching, jumping, running, throwing) to motor fitness (e.g., agility, arm hang, balance, grip strength) to perceptual-motor abilities (e.g., anticipation timing, fine eye-motor coordination, pursuit-rotor tracking, reaction time). The arm hang was represented in the fewest papers (n = 2) while the dash and long jump were most frequently referenced (n = 21).     

Modeling the neurological control of human movements

Although computer models have been extensively used in recent years to understand the way physical systems operate and interact, the enormous power of mathematical modeling and computer simulations has been difficult to implement for the benefit of neuroscientists studying the human motor control system. Nevertheless, homeomorphic models are now being used to explain and predict the neural and biomechanical aspects of different human movements. This paper argues for the importance of regarding model simulations as a supplementary approach to traditional methods of experimental investigation by drawing examples from both the experimental and the modeling literature. The discussion focuses on studies of the triphasic control signal for fast, goal-directed movements and on aspects of sampled data control for slow, tracking movements. The aim of this viewpoint article is to promote a more widespread use of modeling and simulation in the field of motor control.