Relationships among goal orientations, motivational climate and flow in adolescent athletes: differences by gender

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationships among perceived motivational climate, individuals' goal orientations, and dispositional flow, with attention to possible gender differences. A sample of 413 young athletes, ages 12 to 16 years, completed the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2) and Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), as well as the Dispositional Flow Scale. Task orientation was positively and significantly related to a perceived task-involving motivational climate and to the disposition to experience flow in the sport. Ego orientation was positively and significantly associated with a perceived ego-involving motivational climate and with dispositional flow. The perceptions of task-involving and ego-involving motivational climates were positively and significantly linked to general dispositional flow. Multiple regression analysis indicated that both task and ego goal orientations and perceived task- and ego-oriented climates predicted dispositional flow. Males displayed a stronger ego orientation, and were more likely to report that they participated in an ego-oriented climate, than did females. To the contrary, the females were more likely to perceive a task-oriented climate than did the males. No meaningful differences were found between males and females in general dispositional flow.     

UNDERSTANDING FEMALE SPORT ATTRITION IN A STEREOTYPICAL MALE SPORT WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF ECCLES'S EXPECTANCY–VALUE MODEL

An empirical research study based upon the expectancy–value model of Eccles and colleagues (1983) investigated the effect of gender-role orientations on psychological dimensions of female athletes' sport participation and the likelihood of their continued participation in a stereotypical masculine activity. The model ( Eccles et al., 1983 ) posits that gender-role orientation is linked to the intention to persist or discontinue sport participation, which is acted upon indirectly through mediation by two motivational variables: an individual's perceived competence and the perceived value of the activity. Three models were compared to test this mediation hypothesis with 333 female adolescent handball players in a prospective study. Results from structural equation modeling showed that a fully mediated model fit the data. The masculinity orientation positively predicted value for and perceived competence in handball, whereas the femininity orientation negatively predicted perceived competence. In addition, the two motivational variables negatively predicted intention to drop out. Finally, such intentions are the more proximal predictors of actual dropout.     

Predicting persistence or withdrawal in female handballers with social exchange theory

Two complementary studies were conducted to explain the dropout phenomenon with French female handball players, utilizing the tenets of social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959; Rusbult, 1980). In the first study, the aim was to more fully explore the sources of enjoyment by emphasizing the key variables in the costs/benefits analysis. We postulate that the costs/benefits analysis consists in each athlete estimating the probability of reaching the most desired consequences for him or her (e.g., learn and improve skill, affiliation with others, be better than the others). The subjects were 488 French women aged from 15–19 years. Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that enjoyment in handball was predicted by a latent variable (named perceived benefits) subjacent to perceptions of competence, autonomy, relatedness, progress, coach's support, and time of play. In the second study, we tested a sport commitment model based on the social exchange postulates, using SEM analyses and a prospective design over 8 months. In view of the results of study 1, we replaced the construct of enjoyment with perceived benefit. This analysis provides a more comprehensive understanding of the enjoyment construct and is more consistent with the notion of cost and benefits outlined in social exchange theory. Participants were 253 French handball players between the ages of 14 and 16 years. A first set of analyses, focused on the differences, showed that dropout players perceived themselves as significantly less competent, less autonomous, less related to their team, lower in progress and less supported by their coach than persistent players. The second set of analyses with SEM revealed that the commitment level was positively associated with perceived benefits and negatively with social constraints and alternatives opportunities. Finally, a lack of commitment led to dropping out of the sport 8‐months later.     

Masculinity and hockey violence

Qualitative research on the relationship between masculinity and hockey violence has suggested that players endorsing traditional masculine behavior were more likely to engage in violence than players who held weaker masculine beliefs. Data were collected from white, middle class players on five Toronto hockey teams representing two different age groups (14.3 and 17.7 years respectively) and skill levels (Bantam and Junior A). Moderate support was found for the predicted relationship between higher masculinity and increased violence, particularly at the preprofessional Junior A level. Subscales of the Brannon Masculinity Scale, applied to a sport situation, were seen to be a valid measure of gender typing. Increased levels of violence (especially fist fights), more than playing or skating skills were seen to lead to greater perception of competence by both teammates and coaches.     

What’s a coach to do? Exploring coaches’ perspectives of body image in girls sport

Adolescent athletes report body image concerns that negatively impact their sport experiences and participation. The coach’s perspective may be informative to how the context of sport perpetuates, supports, or protects from negative body image. Yet few coaches are represented in this area of research. The purpose of the present study was to explore coaches’ perceptions of body image in girls sport. Thirteen coaches with an average of 10 years of experience working with girls in primarily non-aesthetic team sports were interviewed. Based on inductive thematic analysis, coaches’ perceptions of the athletes’ body image concerns were reflected in four themes labelled (i) body image: the ‘elephant’ on the field (i.e., identifying the unspoken nature of body image), (ii) agents of body image in sport (i.e., parents, coaches, and media), (iii) skill over appearance (i.e., focusing on athletic skill and competence), and (vi) systemic strategies. This last theme offers several considerations for improving the sport context with a lens to improve body image. Of relevance, it was apparent that all coaches operationalized body image as predicated on appearance, body shape, and weight and this narrow simplistic perception could guide future programs and practices. Taken together, findings highlight the need to intervene with coaches to provide adequate support and education on body image in girls sport.     

Task Performance and Satisfaction: Evidence for a Task- By Ego-Orientation Interaction1

A significant body of research has documented two achievement goal orientations that individuals can adopt prior to performing a particular task. These orientations have typically been referred to as “task-oriented” or “ego-oriented,” each of which has different implications for task performance and related perceptions. The majority of this research has considered individuals either task- or ego-oriented. There is initial evidence, however, that the two goal orientations may be independent and, therefore, that they may interact to predict various outcomes. The central finding of this study was that task- and ego-orientations did interact to influence task satisfaction and performance. Specifically, high task satisfaction was reported by individuals who had at least a moderately high degree of task orientation irrespective of the level of ego orientation. Alternatively, the most effective performance was observed for individuals who had a dominant achievement goal orientation, regardless of whether it was a task- or ego-orientation. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

初中生学业延迟满足的发展特点及其相关因素研究

用问卷法对194名初中生学业延迟满足的特点及相关因素进行了研究。结果表明:初中学生的学业延迟满足存在年级和性别差异,初二和初三学生的学业延迟满足水平明显低于初一学生,女生比男生的学业延迟满足能力高。课堂目标结构与学业延迟满足有显著关系,任务取向的课堂目标与学业延迟满足呈正相关关系;自我取向的课堂目标与学业延迟满足呈负相关关系。任务价值、自我效能与学业延迟满足呈正相关关系,学业延迟满足与学业成绩呈正相关关系。     

Developing Anticipation Skills in Tennis Using On-Court Instruction: Perception versus Perception and Action

On-court instruction involving either Perception–action training or Perception-only training was used to improve anticipation skill in novice tennis players. A technical instruction group acted as a control. Participants' ability to anticipate an opponent's serve was assessed pre- and posttest using established on-court measures involving frame-by-frame video analysis. The perception–action and perception-only groups significantly improved their anticipatory performance from pretest to posttest. No pretest-to-posttest differences in anticipation skill were reported for the technical instruction group. The ability to anticipate an opponent's serve can be improved through on-court instruction where the relationship between key postural cues and subsequent performance is highlighted, and both practice and feedback are provided. No significant differences were observed between the perception–action and perception-only training groups, implying that either mode of training may be effective in enhancing perceptual skill in sport.     

The relation between perceived parent-created sport climate and competitive male youth hockey players' good and poor sport behaviors

The authors examined achievement goal orientation (J. L. Duda & J. G. Nicholls, 1992), parental influence (M. L. Babkes & M. R. Weiss, 1999), and the parent-initiated motivational climate (S. A. White, 1996, 1998) in combination to broaden understanding of competitive male youth hockey players' (N = 259) perceptions of the parent-created sport climate and its relation to their self-reported good and poor sport behaviors (GPSB). Exploratory factor analysis revealed a multidimensional measure of GPSB. Multiple regression analyses indicated that athletes' GPSB were significantly predicted by different forms of parental influence. Canonical correlations revealed a complex picture of the contributions of goal orientation and the parent-created sport climate on boys' GPSB in youth hockey. Results expand knowledge of the influence that parents have in youth sport and emphasize the importance of understanding how children's interpretations of parental beliefs and behaviors affect their choices to engage in good and poor sport behaviors.     

Goal orientations and social comparison: The role of different motivations in affiliation preferences

In light of previous findings that both task and ego orientations are related to engagement in social comparison, the present research aimed to investigate this association in depth by examining why and with whom task- and ego-oriented individuals engage in comparisons. In Study 1, we found that task-oriented individuals tended to prefer working with a high performer because they wanted to improve themselves. In Study 2, we provided participants with success or failure feedback before asking them to indicate partner preferences. In the face of failure, task-oriented individuals showed a preference for a high performer due to self-improvement motivation. On the contrary, ego-oriented individuals were more motivated to feel superior to others and/or less motivated to improve themselves, which in turn led them to prefer a less competent partner. The present research demonstrated that the seemingly identical relation between the two goal orientations and the tendency to engage in social comparison might be substantially different in nature.     

The interplay between parental behaviors and adolescents' sports-related values in understanding adolescents' dropout of organized sports activities

Using short-term longitudinal data, the primary goal of the present study was to examine the interplay between adolescents’ sports-related intrapersonal (e.g., sports values) and interpersonal factors (e.g., perceived parental involvement) in relation to sports dropout. A secondary goal was to explore the direction of effects in the association between intra- and interpersonal factors. A total of 420 adolescents (39% girls, M_age = 14.06; SD_age = 0.33) responded to a set of survey questions over two consecutive years. Results from structural equation modeling suggested that parental involvement predicted adolescents’ dropout one year later, via sports values. Further, the results suggested that the direction of influence is mainly from parents to adolescents. Overall, the findings indicate that adolescents whose parents attend their practices and games perceive sports activities as fun, important and useful; as a result, adolescents are less likely to dropout. The findings offer an improved understanding of how parents’ behaviors may influence adolescents’ dropout of organized sports.     

The 1997 coleman roberts griffith address movement expertise: A juncture between psychology theory and practice

Abstract

Two of the major distinguishing characteristics of the pioneering work of Coleman R. Griffith were his theory-practice integration through applied research and his eclectic focus not just on cognitive and emotional aspects of the psychology of sport. but also on elements related to perception, decision-making and movement control, and learning. The first part of this paper discusses the implications of these two attributes to broad issues for sport psychology related to the fragmentation-integration of knowledge, to defining the scope of the field, and to the nature of the relationship with other fields of knowledge, especially motor control and learning. The second part of the paper illustrates some of these issues through an overview of applied research on the enhancement of the perceptual skills of athletes. A critique of current understanding of the nature of perceptual skill in sport is first provided, using expert-novice comparisons as a means of uncovering the essential distinguishing attributes of expert performance. Knowledge about the nature of expert perception is then used to assess the potential of current and prospective training strategies to enhance perceptual skill and, through this, provide new avenues for improving athletic performance.     

Using self-determination theory to explain sport persistence and dropout in adolescent athletes

Motivational characteristics are influential in shaping adolescents' desire to persist in sport or to discontinue their sport participation. Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) was utilized as the theoretical framework for this study. This theory examines whether sustained participatory involvement, defined as continued participation in the sport through the next year, was influenced by individuals' self-determined motivation and by the fulfillment of the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Four hundred ninety two soccer players between the ages of 13 and 17 years comprised the sample. Results indicated sport dropout was explained by higher levels of amotivation, external regulation, and introjected regulation and by lower satisfaction of relatedness and autonomy needs. The findings of this study contribute to the knowledge base on sport dropout as they supported many of self-determination theory.     

Relation of knowledge and performance in boys' tennis: age and expertise

This research examined boys' development of knowledge structure and sport performance in tennis. To assess decision-making and performance, expert and novice tennis players (10-11 and 12-13 years old) were compared on tennis performance (control, decision, and execution), tennis knowledge, serve skill, and groundstroke skill. Experts regardless of age performed better than novices on tennis skill and knowledge; experts' decisions and actions were better during tennis game performance. Declarative knowledge was related to the development of procedural knowledge; serve and groundstroke skill were related to the motor execution components of performance. Interviews during and after game play were used to examine knowledge and decision-making. Experts, as compared to novices, focused on higher level concepts, had more connections between concepts, and had more condition and alternative action concepts that were important to the game's goal structure. Experts' greater decision-making ability during game play was related to their knowledge structure.     

Motivation in sport: an achievement goal perspective in young Spanish recreational athletes

This study examined the relationship between goal orientations, perceived motivational climate, enjoyment, satisfaction, perception of ability, and preference for tasks with different levels of difficulty in Spanish athletes. To measure these variables 323 recreational athletes completed the Spanish versions of the Perception of Success Questionnaire, Perception of Significant Others' Sport Success Criteria Questionnaire, Enjoyment/Boredom scale, and Satisfaction in Sport Questionnaire. To measure perception of ability, athletes responded to two items reflecting a general perception and a comparative perception of their ability. Finally, preference for a task of different difficulty was measured by two items reflecting preference for easy and for challenging tasks. Analysis showed that scores on a positive ego orientation and negative task orientation were associated with maladaptive motivational patterns in sport. Such patterns involve lower perceptual ability, preference for easy tasks, and less enjoyment and satisfaction in sport activities.     

Goal orientations of young male ice hockey players and their parents

In this study, the researchers investigated the relationship between parent and player dispositional goal orientations associated with playing youth hockey. The authors used the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (J. L. Duda & J. Whitehead, 1998) to measure task and ego orientation in 123 boys (10-13 years old) and 1 of their parents. Sons rated their own goal orientations for hockey and their perceptions of their parent's goal orientations. Parents rated their goal orientations for their son and their perceptions of their son's goal orientations. Mothers and fathers did not differ in their goal orientations for their son. Travel-team and nontravel-team players did not differ. For ego orientation, the son's self-ratings correlated significantly with the parent's goals for the son, but not for task orientation. Sons reported being significantly more ego-oriented than their parents desired. Sons perceived that their parents had goal orientations similar to their own. The data from this study are congruent with the assertion that parents socialize their children's goal orientations and that ego orientation may be more salient and easily communicated than task orientation.     

Peers,parents, and coaches,oh my! The relation of the motivational climate to boys' intention to continue in sport

ObjectivesMotivational climates (Ames, 1992) and goal orientations (Nicholls, 1989) are essential in understanding children's experiences with sport. We examined the perceived task-involving motivational climates created by parents, peers, and coaches and their task goal orientation in relation to male adolescent athletes' sport competence, self-esteem and enjoyment, and ultimately, their intention to continue participating.DesignWe used a cross-sectional design with a large convenience sample of male adolescent athletes from the U.S. (N = 405, ages 12–15 years).MethodBoys anonymously completed survey questionnaires during their physical education classes at school.ResultsTask goal orientation was explained by task-involving parent, peer, and coach initiated motivational climates, although parent and peer climates were most influential. Boys with higher task goal orientations reported greater sport competence, self-esteem, and more enjoyment in sport. Intention to continue playing sport primarily was predicted by the boys' enjoyment, and secondarily, by their self-esteem.ConclusionsConsistent with past research, task motivational climates from parents, peers, and coaches play a key role in boys' enjoyment of their sport, which is essential for continued participation.     

Observational learning use and self-efficacy beliefs in adult sport novices

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to investigate adult sport novices' use of the functions of observational learning and to examine its relationship to their self-efficacy beliefs to learn sport-related skills and strategies, and to regulate mental states during the learning process.MethodAdults enrolled in beginner level sport classes completed the Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ; Cumming, J., Clark, S.E., Ste-Marie, D.M., McCullagh, P., & Hall, C. (2005). The functions of observational learning questionnaire (FOLQ). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 517–537.) as well as a self-efficacy questionnaire. Internal consistencies were acceptable for all subscales and a factor analysis confirmed that this instrument can be used with sport novices.ResultsAthletes' use of observational learning and their self-efficacy beliefs differed according to sport type. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that for adults learning an independent sport, more frequent use of the skill function of observational learning predicted higher self-efficacy to learn skills and self-efficacy to learn strategies. For adults learning an interactive sport, more frequent use of the performance function predicted higher self-efficacy to regulate mental states during the learning process.ConclusionsResults suggest that factors related to specific sport types, such as sport demands and model availability, may differentially influence learners' use of observational learning as well as its impact on their self-efficacy for learning technical sport components and self-efficacy for controlling their mental state during learning. This has implications for sport instructors and coaches regarding optimal methods for structuring observational learning experiences to enhance learners' self-efficacy beliefs.     

Predictors of Dropout in Cognitive Processing Therapy for PTSD: An Examination of Trauma Narrative Content

Dropout rates in trauma-focused treatments for adult posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are high. Most research has focused on demographic and pretreatment predictors of dropout, but findings have been inconsistent. We examined predictors of dropout in cognitive processing therapy (CPT) by coding the content of trauma narratives written in early sessions of CPT. Data are from a randomized controlled noninferiority trial of CPT and written exposure therapy (WET) in which CPT showed significantly higher dropout rates than WET (39.7% CPT vs. 6.4% WET). Participants were 51 adults with a primary diagnosis of PTSD who were receiving CPT and completed at least one of three narratives in the early sessions of CPT. Sixteen (31%) in this subsample were classified as dropouts and 35 as completers. An additional 9 participants dropped out but could not be included because they did not complete any narratives. Of the 11 participants who provided a reason for dropout, 82% reported that CPT was too distressing. The CHANGE coding system was used to code narratives for pathological trauma responses (cognitions, emotions, physiological responses) and maladaptive modes of processing (avoidance, ruminative processing, overgeneralization), each on a scale from 0 (absent) to 3 (high). Binary logistic regressions showed that, averaging across all available narratives, more negative emotions described during or around the time of the trauma predicted less dropout. More ruminative processing in the present time frame predicted lower rates of dropout, whereas more overgeneralized beliefs predicted higher rates. In the first impact statement alone, more negative emotions in the present time frame predicted lower dropout rates, but when emotional reactions had a physiological impact, dropout was higher. These findings suggest clinicians might attend to clients’ written trauma narratives in CPT in order to identify indicators of dropout risk and to help increase engagement.     

Understanding enjoyment in youth sport: A developmental perspective

ObjectivesHistorically, the youth sport emotional response literature focused mainly on stress and enjoyment. Although research on these emotional responses has been significant, no systematic examination of these responses from a developmental perspective has been undertaken and therefore, developmental influence and implications for competitive youth sport are largely unknown. To begin to address this issue, the present study examined the developmental progression of sources of enjoyment among youth sport participants.DesignA multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the developmental differences in sources of enjoyment among younger (under 11 years) and older (over 11 years) children participating in individual and team sports.MethodsParticipants (n=152) aged 8–15 years were categorized into groups of younger and older children based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Self-report measures of enjoyment, sources of enjoyment, perceived sport competence, and task and ego goal orientation were recorded.ResultsOlder children reported significantly greater enjoyment and other-referenced competency and recognition than younger children. Although all sources of enjoyment predicted enjoyment among younger children, no single source added a unique proportion of variance to the model. Competitive excitement (CE) and other-referenced competency and recognition significantly predicted enjoyment among older children. Team sport participants reported significantly greater self-referenced competency (SRC), affiliation with peers (AP), competitive excitement (CE), positive parental involvement (PPI) and enjoyment compared with individual sport participants. Finally, aligned with previous research, task orientation and perceived competence significantly predicted enjoyment.ConclusionsThe results of the present study underline the importance of understanding the developmental progression of sources of enjoyment among children and adolescents in sport. Furthermore, consideration should also be given to the nature of the sport (team or individual) children participate in for long-term enjoyment and commitment to sport.