Judgments About Sexism: A Policy Capturing Approach

Different definitions of sexism have been usedby different experimenters and little attention has beengiven to the possibility that participants' definitionsof sexism might vary across individuals and across situations, just as the definitions ofinvestigators vary. Judgments about sexism areinextricably based on individual perceptions, values,and beliefs. It would seem reasonable, therefore toexamine individual conceptions of what constitutessexism. A total of 95 primarily middle-class Caucasianparticipants (68 females, 27 males) participated inthree studies investigating what information people use in deciding whether or not a male actor issexist. Six specific categories of information (or cues)were examined: (1) comments (or lack thereof) by theactor on a female target's physical appearance, (2) unwanted or inappropriate physical contact(or lack thereof), (3) assumptions (or lack thereof)about the target's work, personality, etc., based on hergender, (4) the target being interrupted (or not) by the actor, (5) an apparent powerdifferential (or lack thereof) between the actor and thetarget, and (6) assumptions by the actor aboutappropriate gender role behaviors. A policy capturingmethodology was employed in which three different sets ofscenarios, each describing a number of interactions(called profiles) between a target and an actor, werepresented to male and female participants who rated the degree of sexism exhibited by the actor ineach scenario. Policy capturing represents anideographic approach to research in which the primaryfocus is on establishing statistical parameter estimates that describe each individual's behavior in avariety of environmental situations. Only when that isaccomplished does the researcher examine the possiblenomothetic aggregations across participants. Thus many fewer participants are required than intraditional nomothetic approaches. Each profile set useda different subset of the cues which contained eithersubtle (Study 1), overt (Study 2), or very overt (Study 3)levels of the cues. Multipleregression analysis revealed that when relatively overtacts of sexism were described, most participants hadreliable policies; that is, their judgments werepredictable from the cues. However, when relatively subtleacts of sexism were described, most participants did nothave reliable policies; that is, their judgments werenot very predictable from the cues. There were large individual differences in howparticipants weighted the importance of various cues,especially with subtle cue levels, and in participants'mean sexism ratings.     

Quantifying Idiodynamics: A Process Approach to Personality Psychology

Rosenzweig's (1950) concept of idiodynamics is presented, and the importance of time in applied idiodynamics is stressed. Time-series analyses are proposed as one method for realizing the potential of idiodynamics for understanding and modeling individual lives. Building on this, and incorporating Cattell's (1966) notion of the data box, a process approach to personality research is proposed. This approach begins with idiodynamic analyses at the level of individual lives in an effort to identify patterns or themes, then proceeds to examine individual differences in the patterns or themes so identified. Examples of applying this process approach to personality questions are provided. These include identification of cycles in daily moods, assessing the link between each individual's moods and the events in his/her daily life, and the relation between repressive coping style and the experience of and memory for affect-charged life events. Conclusions emphasize how this approach can retain the appeal of the dynamic while maintaining the precision and rule-governed discourse afforded by quantification.     

条件性推理测验：人格测验的新思路

条件性推理测验关注人们如何解决表面上看上去类似于传统归纳推理测验的问题,其真实目的是根据反应者是否将基于某种内隐偏差的解决方案视为合理的,进而评估反应者的人格倾向.有证据表明该方法可以有效防止自陈问卷的有意扭曲等相关问题,获得更可靠的结果.这种测评思路在成就动机和攻击性两个领域的研究中已经获得初步成效,测验的信度和效度都较为理想.然而也需指出,这一新思路尚处在发展中,还有一些问题如施测方法、测验构建和思路拓展等需作进一步探讨.     

兼顾文化共通性与特殊性的人格研究：CPAI及其跨文化应用

本文在回顾华人社会人格研究与评估发展以及“跨文化(中国人)个性测量表(CPAI)”的研究与应用历程基础上, 比较了CPAI-2 (Form B)不同语言版本(包括中文版、英文版、韩文版、日文版)的跨文化应用结果。多种文化中的研究结果支持了CPAI的跨文化信度和效度。同时, CPAI在本土和跨文化应用研究中, 还从理论与实践的双重视角, 强调与支持了“兼顾文化共通性与特殊性的(etic-emic)人格研究方法”在人格评估领域的重要性。这也促使国内外相关领域研究者开始思考, 如何使用兼顾文化共通性与特殊性的人格研究方法以进一步推动人格心理学的研究。     

Experience Sampling Methods: A Modern Idiographic Approach to Personality Research

Experience sampling methods are essential tools for building a modern idiographic approach to understanding personality. These methods yield multiple snapshots of people's experiences over time in daily life and allow researchers to identify patterns of behavior within a given individual, rather than strictly identify patterns of behavior across individuals, as with standard nomothetic approaches. In this article, we discuss the origin and evolution of idiographic methods in the field of personality and explain how experience sampling methods function as modern day idiographic methods in this field. We then review four primary ways in which experience sampling methods have been used to foster idiographic approaches in personality research. Specifically, we highlight approaches that examine individual differences in temporal and behavioral distributions, situation–behavior contingencies, daily processes, and the structure of daily experience. Following a brief methodology primer, we end by discussing future directions for idiographic experience sampling approaches in personality psychology and beyond.     

Managerial Personality and Performance: A Semi-idiographic Approach

Understanding the relationship between personality and behavior requires accounting for a broad set of traits within each person and the demands of a specific role or situation. To address these requirements, we assessed the relevance or ordering of traits within an individual (an idiographic approach) and compared these orderings across individuals occupying similar organizational situations (a nomothetic approach). We illustrate the utility of this semi-idiographic approach with a longitudinal study of Masters of Business Administration (MBA) students. The MBAs whose personalities were more similar to a template of the successful young manager received more job offers upon graduating and, subsequently, earned higher salaries, were more likely to be working full-time, and had changed jobs less often than did those who fit the managerial template less well.     

环形模型:整合人格研究的一种取向

环形模型是一种用于描述具有系统有序的相关模式的一组变量的取向,它可作为研究思路、形成待检验的理论假设、分析方法、检验其他结构的法则网络系统,具有强有力的理论基础和明确的数学属性,是人格和社会心理学中一个重要的工具。人际环形模型对于人际特质结构的探讨,对人际相关心理结构的检验,以及对于人际行为的描述和预测,都有其独特的效力,是以五因素人格特质模型为代表的因素模型的一个重要互补且兼容的模型。本文就人际环形模型的理论与实践背景加以介绍,并用人际形容词量表(IAS-R)的实证数据来演示环形模型的分析和检验过程,从而对环形模型的数学属性及其分析检验方式加以阐释。最后论述了该模型对于传统人际评价的理解以及本土人格与社会心理研究的意义。     

个性的比较心理学研究

个性的比较心理学研究,实质上是指动物个性研究。文章首先探讨了个性的比较心理学研究的理论基础,在此基础上简要介绍了个性的比较心理学研究的策略和方法,并就个性的比较心理学研究对当代个性心理学发展的积极意义进行了初步的分析。     

A Framework for the Classification of Personality Components

ABSTRACT Psychologists working within different theoretical traditions have proposed the existence of hundreds of personality components since the turn of the century. For example, psychoanalysts proposed such components as the id, ego, and superego, and trait theorists proposed such components as introversion and extraversion. Because each proposed component models a part of internal psychological functioning, it would make sense to combine the components into a single more meaningful set. Such components, however, are generally discussed only within the specific theoretical tradition in which they originated. This article presents a classification system that treats personality components together as a group. Personality components were first defined and then several hundred components were collected in a preliminary theory-by-theory classification. A new relational classification system was then developed that organized the components according to their interrelated nature, without regard to their originating theories. This classification system can be used to construct a relational table of personality components that is loosely analogous to a chemist's periodic table of the elements. The re-lational classification system's potential contribution to personality psychology is discussed.     

A Developmental Approach to Social Science: A Model for Analyzing Charles Alexander's Scientific Contributions

A seven-paradigm developmental model of social science is presented (behaviorism, gestalt sociologism, empirical positivism, multi-method eclecticism, postmodern interpretivism, cooperative ecological inquiry, and developmental action inquiry). Charles Alexander's research is interpreted as bridging aspects of several paradigms, using third-person empirical positivist experiments to demonstrate the effects of a first-person research/practice called Transcendental Meditiation. The author suggests the possibility of complementing current research on TM with explicit double- and triple-loop research on the second- and third-person practices within the TM movement.     

Comparative Personality Judgments: Replication and Extension of Robust Findings in Personality Perception Using an Alternative Method

The scientific study of accuracy in personality judgment typically involves the utilization of rating scales to make absolute decisions about a target individual. Although this method has many merits, it restricts some experimental options and is further removed from ecological validity than one would desire. These studies represent an attempt to develop an alternative methodology for the study of personality judgment—specifically for use in explorations of judgment process. A series of photo sets containing pictures of 3 individuals, each representing a different level of a specific personality trait, was created. The participant's task was to select high and low scorers on a dimension from the photos. Study 1 demonstrates that people can select targets with extreme scores from a photo lineup at a rate better than chance across several personality dimensions. Study 2 shows that this ability has some degree of temporal consistency. Study 3 represents an improvement on the general method via enhanced criteria for stimulus selection, incorporating both self and peer reports.     

Analyzing Judgments of Ethnically Diverse Applicants During Personnel Selection: A study at the Dutch police

A judgment‐analysis study was used to investigate assessors' judgment processes, evaluating ethnic minority vs ethnic majority applicants. Sixteen ethnic majority assessors judged 5089 applicants during the Dutch police officer selection procedure, with each assessor judging 30 ethnic minority applicants minimally. Information from an employment interview, an assessment center, and a Big Five personality test were combined into a final selection advice. Results showed that as much as or more information sources were used to judge ethnic minority than ethnic majority applicants. Furthermore, a larger number of irrelevant cues were used for the judgment of ethnic minority applicants. Finally, when judging ethnic minority applicants, assessors based their decision to a lesser extent on their own ratings than on ratings of others.     

Analyzing Components of Work Samples to Evaluate Performance

A method is described in which work sample data were analyzed to reveal how aircraft maintenance technicians differed in troubleshooting performance after a training intervention. During the training phase of the study, approximately half the techni- cians received troubleshooting instruction from an intelligent tutoring system, and the remaining technicians received informal on-the-job training. Data from work samples, in which technicians verbally isolated simulated equipment failures, were collected from both groups before and after the training. The work sample data were then examined by subject matter experts who scored performance for overall profi- ciency and noted specific violations of good troubleshooting practice. These viola- tions provided the basis for the components of performance examined in the work sample data. The results of this componential analysis allow more specific conclu- sions to be drawn regarding the effectiveness of the training intervention by revealing how the tutoring system improved technicians' troubleshooting (e.g., tutored techni- cians were more likely than untutored technicians to test components thoroughly to ensure they were faulty before replacing them).     

人格判断的自我—他人一致性:熟悉度和亲密度的作用

关系质量是影响人格判断准确性的重要因素,该研究分别在男性、女性朋友两个样本中考查了熟悉度与关系亲密度对人格判断自我—他人一致性(SOA)的影响,结果表明:(1)神经质的自我评定显著高于朋友评定,责任心的自我评定显著低于朋友评定;(2)两个样本中大五人格所有维度的SOA都达到了显著水平,尽管女性样本中外倾性、宜人性和责任心的SOA均比男性样本高,但两样本之间不存在显著差异;(3)两样本聚合的SOA中,外倾性最高(r=0.41),责任心其次(r=0.36),神经质和开放性最低(均为r=0.21);(4)除了男性样本中的外倾性,熟悉度对其他维度的SOA都没有显著调节效应;(5)两样本中关系亲密度对所有人格维度SOA的调节效应均不显著。     

Variability in Personality Expression Across Contexts: A Social Network Approach

The current research investigated how the contextual expression of personality differs across interpersonal relationships. Two related studies were conducted with college samples (Study 1: N = 52, 38 female; Study 2: N = 111, 72 female). Participants in each study completed a five‐factor measure of personality and constructed a social network detailing their 30 most important relationships. Participants used a brief Five‐Factor Model scale to rate their personality as they experience it when with each person in their social network. Multiple informants selected from each social network then rated the target participant's personality (Study 1: N = 227, Study 2: N = 777). Contextual personality ratings demonstrated incremental validity beyond standard global self‐report in predicting specific informants' perceptions. Variability in these contextualized personality ratings was predicted by the position of the other individuals within the social network. Across both studies, participants reported being more extraverted and neurotic, and less conscientious, with more central members of their social networks. Dyadic social network–based assessments of personality provide incremental validity in understanding personality, revealing dynamic patterns of personality variability unobservable with standard assessment techniques.     

Defenses, Personality Structure, and Development: Integrating Psychodynamic Theory Into a Typological Approach to Personality

Psychodynamic theory does not conceptualize motivated unconscious defenses primarily in terms of individual traits. Rather, a person's mechanisms of defense are understood in terms of his or her personality structure and level of psychological development. This paper outlines the way in which this perspective has been integrated into a configural approach to personality assessment. The six-group typology based on the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI) identifies higher-order personality organization through the intersection of self-reported high/low distress and high/moderate/low self-restraint. The framework incorporates a developmental perspective by assessing affect regulation in conjunction with the internalization of self-regulatory controls. The primary defenses of prototypic members of each of the six groups are highlighted, and hypothesized links to personality traits, stages of ego development, attachment styles, and proneness to specific personality disorders are discussed.