利他行为的内隐启动研究

通过视觉与组词任务启动范式的两个实验考察了利他人物形象与利他词语对利他行为的内隐启动效应。结果发现,完成利他人物形象视觉启动(实验1)与完成利他组词任务启动(实验2)的实验组被试,在独裁者分配任务中分配给他人的钱数显著多于控制组被试。研究结果表明:利他人物形象视觉和利他语义组词都可以使个体的利他行为被显著直接无意识启动,即内隐启动。研究对设计能更好地启动人们的利他行为的一般情境有重要的启示。     

长时记忆项目再认任务中的范畴效应

该研究探讨语义范畴组织在长时记忆项目再认任务中的作用。实验材料的记忆广度内和记忆广度外词表,实验采用项目再认固定集程序。结果表明被试反应时间随记忆集增加而增加,同时“是”“否”反应的斜率一致;     

字表法定向遗忘对内隐记忆测验的影响

字表法定向遗忘是否影响内隐记忆测验,一直是记忆心理学家关注的焦点.本研究选取低频词语作为实验材料,引入指示符变量(记住、遗忘).以词干回忆和词干补笔分别作为外显和内隐记忆测验,考察字表法定向遗忘对内隐记忆测验的影响.结果发现:(1)内隐和外显记忆测验中都出现了显著的字表法定向遗忘效应;(2)字表法定向遗忘效应的机制应该是提取抑制,即要求遗忘的项目在提取时受到抑制而使记住项目的成绩更为突出,而不是偏好对记住项目复述的结果.     

提取抑制对错误记忆的影响

该研究探讨提取抑制能否减少错误记忆的发生.以自编的DRM词表为实验材料,实验1采用有意遗忘范式（有意抑制）,实验2采用部分线索效应范式（无意抑制）.实验1结果发现：关键诱饵在“记住”条件下的错误回忆成绩显著高于“遗忘”条件下的错误回忆成绩;学过项目在“记住”条件下的正确回忆成绩显著高于“遗忘”条件下的正确回忆成绩.实验2结果发现：关键诱饵在“无部分线索”条件下的错误回忆成绩显著高于“部分线索”条件下的错误回忆成绩;学过项目在“无部分线索”条件下的正确回忆成绩显著高于“部分线索”条件下的正确回忆成绩.研究结果提示：有意和无意两种提取抑制都可以降低错误记忆,结果支持基于激活与监测的双加工理论的观点.     

系列范畴词表时序记忆和项目记忆研究

该项研究探讨系列范畴词表的时序长时记忆和项目长时记忆,实验设计的系列范畴词表将记忆项目分为词表内范畴相同项和词表间范畴相同项,时序记记测量方法是词表辨认,项目记忆测量方法是自由回忆。实验一发现：２分钟延缓测试词表内范畴相同项时序记忆和项目记忆优于词表间范畴相同项;６分钟以及１０分钟延缓测试时序记忆仍是词表内范畴相同项好。实验二发现：以范畴线索提取,两类项目记忆没有显著差异;以词表线索提取,两类项目     

高低PTSD症状个体的定向遗忘效应

本研究为考察高PTSD症状个体的记忆抑制功能特点,分别采用定向遗忘任务的单词范式和词表范式,以中性词语为实验材料,以不同程度PTSD症状的监狱犯人为被试进行研究。所有被试均被要求学习两组词语,记住其中一组(TBR),并忘记另一组(TBF)。学习完成后,以自由回忆的方式对两组词语进行测验。结果表明,无论是单词方式还是词表方式,高PTSD症状的被试在TBR和TBF上的回忆成绩的差异都比低症状被试要小;研究结果提示高PTSD症状者在抑制无关信息方面的功能上有所缺损。通过两种不同定向遗忘方式的设计区别,考虑这种缺损更可能发生在记忆的提取阶段。     

负性词语与中性词语的定向遗忘效应

以31名大学生为被试,采用负性词语和中性词语,考察负性情绪项目对被试定向遗忘效应的影响。本研究采用项目法定向遗忘实验范式,通过被试对负性词语和中性词语的再认成绩考察负性词语的定向遗忘效应。结果显示,负性词语和中性词语在记住和遗忘提示线索条件下再认成绩差异显著。但是在遗忘提示条件下,被试对中性词的再认率要显著低于负性词。因此,被试对负性词语和中性词语均可产生显著定向遗忘效应,但负性词的定向遗忘效应要小于中性词。     

高强迫症状个体的定向遗忘和元记忆

将定向遗忘和FOK判断的范式相结合,探讨高强迫症状被试（HOC）和低强迫症状的控制组（LOC）在不同词语类型的条件下,线索回忆和元记忆判断的定向遗忘效应的差异。实验结果表明,HOC组在中性词语条件下比LOC组表现出更低的定向遗忘效应。FOK的结果表明HOC被试对于不同条件的元记忆的分辨能力比LOC组要差,他们在威胁性词语方面,对未来记忆任务的成绩也没有预测性。研究结果从一定程度上支持强迫症的一般记忆损伤模型     

直觉对内隐学习优势效应的特异性贡献

已有人工语法的内隐学习研究中一个关键的问题是被试在不同指导语诱发下究竟形成了什么样的知识表征？实验借助结构知识的测量方式, 采用记忆和规则探索两种指导语, 考察了两组被试所获得的深层知识表征(结构知识)。结果发现：(1)在记忆指导语条件下, 被试获得了语法规则; (2)直觉在记忆指导语条件下贡献突出, 表现出特异性。该结果表明记忆指导语引发了被试基于直觉区分人工语法规则的内隐学习优势效应。     

任务难度与部分线索效应

部分线索效应是指在学习一个词表后,呈现已学项目中的一部分作为回忆线索去回忆其他项目时,回忆效果反而不如没有线索组的效果好。研究通过三个实验探讨了不同任务难度的部分线索效应。结果表明：（1）在中文词表记忆中存在部分线索效应;（2）随着学习材料难度的提高由部分线索造成的提取成绩的削减量降低。这一研究结果支持了部分线索效应的策略破坏假说。     

Costs and Benefits in Item-Method Directed Forgetting: Differential Effects of Encoding and Retrieval

This study examined how encoding and retrieval factors affected directed forgetting costs and benefits in an item-method procedure. Experiment 1 used a typical item-method procedure and revealed a levels-of-processing effect in overall recall. However, the deep encoding condition showed a smaller directed forgetting effect than the shallow encoding conditions. More importantly, “remember” (R) words were selectively rehearsed as indicated by greater recall from the primacy portion of the list and more apt to be recalled before “forget” (F) words. Experiment 2 showed that a deep encoding operation reduced directed forgetting costs and that directed forgetting benefits occurred only when R words were recalled before F words. These findings supported the hypotheses that encoding manipulation affected directed forgetting costs and that directed forgetting benefits were associated with output order bias. Results were discussed in terms of mechanisms that produce item-method directed forgetting.     

内容与自我关联性对负性情绪记忆定向遗忘的影响

本研究使用消极情绪视频片段作为实验材料,采用词表法定向遗忘范式,用2个实验分别考察了内容与自我关联性对负性情绪要义和细节记忆的定向遗忘及其权衡的影响。研究结果表明：(1)内容关联性对定向遗忘几乎没有影响,在内容关联条件下,遗忘提示只增加了要义记忆没有增加细节记忆;(2)自我关联性对定向遗忘产生了影响,自我关联条件下出现了定向遗忘,而自我无关条件下定向遗忘消失;(3) 关联性对细节和要义记忆有不同的影响,表现出明显的要义-细节权衡。     

The item and list methods of directed forgetting: test differences and the role of demand characteristics

In directed forgetting, the item method presents instructions to remember or to forget individual items; the list method presents a single mid-list instruction to forget the first half of the list. Initial free recall was better for remember (R) words than for forget (F) words under both methods. Offered 50 cents for each additional F word, subjects could recall almost no more items, eliminating a demand characteristics explanation. On a yes/no recognition test, only the item method showed directed forgetting. Retrospective instruction identification was good except for F words under the list method, where performance was at chance. There was no evidence of speed-accuracy tradeoff on the recognition or instruction identification tests. These results bring together the major findings concerning directed forgetting and support a method-based theoretical distinction.     

Repetition effects in directed forgetting: evidence for retrieval inhibition

Four experiments were conducted in support of a role for memory retrieval inhibition in directed forgetting. In each experiment, subjects were presented a list of words, some of which they were instructed to remember and some of which they were instructed to forget. After a recall test for all the words, the list was repeated. This time, however, all the words were presented with instructions that they be remembered. The improvement in recall from Trial 1 to Trial 2 was greater for the “forget” (F) words than for the “remember” (R) words. This difference was not due to a memorization-difficulty, item-selection effect (Experiment 2), a differential priority for rehearsal or output position given to the F items on Trial 2 (Experiment 3), or the greater number of F items left to be learned after Trial 1 (Experiment 4). Thus, the differential improvement from List 1 to List 2 for the F items was interpreted as a release of retrieval inhibition owing to the change in cue from forget to remember.     

Recall order determines the magnitude of directed forgetting in the within-participants list method

In three experiments, we investigated the effect of recall order on directed forgetting when the within-participants list method is used. Experiment 1 showed that participants tend to recall to-be-remembered (R) items before to-be-forgotten (F) items when they can recall items in any order. In Experiment 2, recall order was manipulated (F-R or R-F). The results showed that only the R-F order led to directed forgetting. Finally, in Experiment 3, recall order was also manipulated, and half of the participants were explicitly instructed to use a relational strategy when both F and R items were presented. Again, only the R-F order led to directed forgetting. These results demonstrate that directed forgetting under the list method hinges on the output order in which participants recall the F and R information. Thus, output order should be taken into account by researchers investigating specific mechanisms that lead to directed forgetting.     

Inhibition, Contextual Segregation, and Subject Strategies in List Method Directed Forgetting

This experiment tested alternative explanations of list method directed forgetting effects. Two word lists were studied by 135 subjects. Between lists, subjects were instructed to remember both lists (remember group), remember both lists as well as in which list words were studied (segregate group), or to forget the first list and remember the second (forget group). All subjects took both recall and recognition tests with test order varied between subjects. Among subjects who took the recall test first, the forget group showed a directed forgetting effect (poorer performance on List 1 than List 2) with both recall accuracy, recall typing time, and recognition reaction time measures. Contextual segregation of List 1 words by forget subjects was ruled out as a sufficient cause of the effect. Limited support was obtained for a differential rehearsal explanation of the effect. Within-group comparisons and findings of release from directed forgetting support inhibitory processes as the major cause of the directed forgetting effect.     

Impaired directed forgetting in abstinent heroin addicts

Drug-related memories persist long into abstinence and are potent elicitors of drug craving and relapse. We report two experiments examining whether heroin-dependent individuals are impaired in intentionally suppressing drug-related memories. Experiment 1 adopted the Item paradigm where addicts and healthy controls were presented with a list of words each followed by a remember or forget cue. Experiment 2 adopted the List paradigm where they studied one list of items and were then split into a remember group and a forget group. Both groups studied a second list, except that the forget group was told to forget the first list. Compared with controls, addicts showed a reduced directed forgetting effect in the Item method and a total absence of one measure of directed forgetting in the List method (List 2 benefits). Results indicate that heroin addicts are impaired in directed forgetting and that the deficits are likely associated with memory encoding as opposed to retrieval. Possible problems include reduced ability in actively suppressing/stopping encoding of irrelevant information into memory or inability in changing/resetting encoding strategies. In neither experiment did the addicts show any differential directed forgetting effects between drug-related words and neutral words, indicating the generic nature of their intentional forgetting deficits.     

Forgetting is effortful: Evidence from reaction time probes in an item-method directed forgetting task

Reaction time (RT) was measured in response to visual detection probes embedded within an item-method directed forgetting paradigm. In Experiment 1, study words were presented individually followed by an instruction to remember (R) or forget (F). Probes were presented at stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 1,400, 1,800, or 2,600 msec in relation to the study word or memory instruction. After the study trials, a yes-no recognition task measured retention of R and F words. Experiment 2 added a no-word control condition and no-probe catch trials. In both experiments, post-F probe RTs were longer than post-R probe RTs at early SOAs. Confirming that participants attended to the memory instructions, there was a significant directed forgetting effect, with greater recognition of R than of F words. These findings contradict the view that directed forgetting in the item-method paradigm is due to the passive decay of nonrehearsed F items; instead, they are consistent with the view that intentional forgetting in an item-method paradigm occurs via the operation of an active, potentially inhibitory, cognitive process.     

Inhibiting retrieval of trauma cues in adults reporting histories of childhood sexual abuse

Are people who report having forgotten their childhood sexual abuse (CSA) characterised by superior ability to inhibit retrieval of disturbing material? To test this hypothesis, we asked adults reporting either repressed, recovered, or continuous memories of CSA or no history of CSA to participate in a directed forgetting experiment (list method). They rated the emotionality of two consecutive lists of trauma‐related and positive words. After the first list, the experimenter instructed participants to forget these words, and to continue rating the remaining words. A surprise recall task revealed robust directed forgetting and valence effects: All groups recalled more words from the second list than from the first list, and recalled more trauma words than positive ones. Participants reporting either repressed or recovered memories of CSA did not exhibit superior forgetting of trauma versus positive words relative to the other two groups. Finally, a subsidiary analysis revealed that participants exhibiting a “repressor” coping style (low self‐reported anxiety plus high defensiveness) did not exhibit superior directed forgetting of trauma words.     

Directed forgetting of emotional words

Emotional material may induce processing limitations affecting memory performance. In the present study, the authors investigated how the emotional content of words influences the degree to which participants can be directed to forget them. In Experiment 1, the authors found that negative-valence words were recalled better when participants were told to forget them than when they were told to remember them. This effect was only obtained when a study-list of negative words was presented after the cue to remember or forget the first list. The effect was correlated with negative mood as assessed by the PANAS. Similar results were obtained in Experiment 2, in which the induction of negative arousal by a mild stressor abolished the directed forgetting of words when the following study list was comprised of negative words. These results support the idea that directed forgetting relies on cognitive control processes that may be disrupted by negative emotion.