How does cognition evolve? Phylogenetic comparative psychology

Now more than ever animal studies have the potential to test hypotheses regarding how cognition evolves. Comparative psychologists have developed new techniques to probe the cognitive mechanisms underlying animal behavior, and they have become increasingly skillful at adapting methodologies to test multiple species. Meanwhile, evolutionary biologists have generated quantitative approaches to investigate the phylogenetic distribution and function of phenotypic traits, including cognition. In particular, phylogenetic methods can quantitatively (1) test whether specific cognitive abilities are correlated with life history (e.g., lifespan), morphology (e.g., brain size), or socio-ecological variables (e.g., social system), (2) measure how strongly phylogenetic relatedness predicts the distribution of cognitive skills across species, and (3) estimate the ancestral state of a given cognitive trait using measures of cognitive performance from extant species. Phylogenetic methods can also be used to guide the selection of species comparisons that offer the strongest tests of a priori predictions of cognitive evolutionary hypotheses (i.e., phylogenetic targeting). Here, we explain how an integration of comparative psychology and evolutionary biology will answer a host of questions regarding the phylogenetic distribution and history of cognitive traits, as well as the evolutionary processes that drove their evolution.     

How does speed change affect induced motion?

The nature of a recently reported effect of speed on induced motion was investigated. Wallach and Becklen (1983) had found that the extent of induced motion decreases linearly with increases in presentation speed. We found that this speed effect occurred only in induced motion and not under conditions in which configurational change, which is responsible for induced motion, operated veridically. It took place whether configurational change was in conflict with ocular pursuit or with image displacement, and seemed to consist in diminished effectiveness of configurational change when it competed with one of these subject-relative stimuli.     

How does motor imagery speed affect motor performance times? Evaluating the effects of task specificity

The present experiment investigated whether motor imagery (MI) performed at a faster speed might influence the actual motor performance duration by comparing real‐time vs. fast MI of different finger movement sequences. Forty‐eight participants were either asked to do real‐time or fast MI practice of simple 8‐digit (unimanual), complex 8‐digit (bimanual), and long (16‐digit) finger movement sequences. The main findings revealed that both fast and real‐time MI resulted in actual speed gains in all experimental conditions, hence suggesting that performing fast MI did not systematically provide additional benefits as compared to real‐time MI. Interestingly, the results suggested that the speed at which movements were performed following an increase in MI speed was selectively influenced by the complexity of the task. MI training at higher speed seemed to be more effective in changing complex motor sequences compared with real‐time MI. Practical implications in motor learning and rehabilitation are also discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How does the hippocampus contribute to memory?

Recently, Wirth et al. reported that hippocampal neurons signal the acquisition of new associations by altering the selectivity of their responses to crucial stimuli. The course of these changes was gradual, with some neurons recruited before, others at the time of, and yet others shortly after learning. These observations suggest the hippocampus might contribute to memory by identifying consistencies across experiences that constitute important new associations.     

Persuasion in school-aged children: How does it change if the persuadee is the mother or the peer?

The present study was designed to verify how school-aged children’s persuasive tactics changed if the persuadee was the mother or the peer. One hundred and forty-nine children at two grade levels (4th and 5th) were enrolled in the study. Persuasive strategies were investigated using pictures representing two common situations in which each child had to convince his/her playmate and his/her mother to obtain a toy. As predicted, with mothers children engaged more frequently in strategies aimed at encouraging cognitive reappraisal of the situation and offering guarantees. Conversely, with the peers, children adopted a greater variety of persuasive strategies, engaging in lower-order tactics. Implications and limitations of the study were discussed.     

How do natural environments shape adaptive cognition across the lifespan?

How does human cognition adapt to idiosyncratic features of our real-world experiences across our lifetimes? The dynamic interaction between individuals and their natural environments is rarely the focus of study within cognitive science, but I argue that a more ecological approach will be critical for advancing developmental science and revealing the adaptive nature of cognition.     

How does visuomotor priming differ for biological and non-biological stimuli? A review of the evidence

Visuomotor priming occurs when our actions are influenced by observing a compatible or incompatible action. Here we ask whether visuomotor priming is specific to human, biological actions or generalises to non-biological movements, such as abstract shapes or robots. Reviewing the evidence indicates that priming occurs for both types of stimuli and emphasises the contributions of both bottom-up (e.g. stimulus saliency, appearance, kinematics) and top-down (e.g. attention and prior knowledge) factors. We propose a model suggesting that although bottom-up features play a critical role, the degree of difference in priming for biological versus non-biological stimuli can be ultimately shaped by top-down factors.     

How does commuting behavior change due to incentives? An empirical study of the Beijing Subway System

This study examines the impact of incentives on commuters’ travel behavior based upon a questionnaire survey conducted with respect to the Beijing Subway System. Overall, we find that offering incentives to commuters, particularly fast food restaurant-related services and reduced ticket fares, has a positive influence on avoiding the morning rush hour. Furthermore, by using an interaction analysis, we discover that a flexible work schedule has an impact on commuters’ behavior and the efficiency of the subway system. Finally, we recommend two possible policies to maximize the utility of the subway system and to reduce congestion at the peak of morning service: (1) a set of incentives that includes free wireless internet service with a coupon for breakfast and a discount on ticket fares before the morning peak and (2) the introduction of a flexible work schedule.     

Mandatory personal therapy: does the evidence justify the practice? In debate

ABSTRACT

The article addresses the question of whether the practice of mandatory personal therapy, followed by several training organisations, is justified by existing research and evidence. In doing so, it discusses some implications of this training requirement from an ethical and ideological standpoint, raising questions of import for training organisations and highlighting avenues for further research.     

What does the public think of placebo use? The Canadian experience

Part of the National Placebo Initiative in Canada included public consultations, based on the belief that the views of the public should inform Canadian policy development on what constitutes appropriate placebo use. Public consultations took place nationally in 2003. A deliberative dialogue approach was used, or a structured discussion format designed to facilitate the consideration of complex issues and build consensus. The placebo debate was characterized as having 3 distinct approaches and each were explored. The first approach “Maximize Patient Protection” identified the need for experts to determine appropriate placebo use and that placebos should only be allowed under very restricted conditions. The second approach “Maximize Medical Knowledge” identified that placebos give essential information about the safety and efficacy of new drugs, and are appropriate when the rights, safety and well-being of research participants are ensured. The third approach “Maximize Patient Autonomy” identified that the current system of regulating placebo use is paternalistic and that patients should be able to define what is in their best interests and have more leeway to determine for themselves if they wish to participate in a placebo-controlled trial. Advantages and disadvantages of each approach were considered and feedback on what constitutes appropriate placebo use was sought. The major findings were that: PCTs were considered a valuable and acceptable part of advancing medical knowledge; research using placebos must be valid and justifiable; a patient-centred approach needs to be fostered; patient autonomy (choice) should be a first consideration and take clear precedence in trials of low to medium risk; patient protection (or health) may need to “trump” patient autonomy at higher levels of risk and/or patient vulnerability; placebos are not a violation of the duty of care as duty of care is best met by identifying a choice for patients, whenever a choice is available. These consultations clearly were not designed to produce conclusive evidence, but rather to provide some useful insights into what the public may think about placebo use; additional studies are indicated. Funding for the public consultations was provided by Health Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “Placebo: Its Action and Place in Health Research Today,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 12–13 April, 2003.     

Why does working memory span predict complex cognition? Testing the strategy affordance hypothesis

We introduce and empirically evaluate the strategy affordance hypothesis, which holds that individual differences in strategy use will mediate the relationship between performances on a working memory (WM) span task and another cognitive task only when the same strategies are afforded by both tasks. One hundred forty-eight participants completed basic memory tasks and verbal span tasks that afford the same strategies, such as imagery and sentence generation, and completed reading comprehension tasks that afford different ones, such as self-questioning and summarization. Effective strategy use on WM span tasks accounted for variance in the span-memory relationship, but not for the span-comprehension relationship, supporting the strategy affordance hypothesis. Strategy use mediated the span-cognition relationship only when both tasks afforded the same strategies.     

How does the heel-off posture modify gait initiation parameter programming?

The authors studied the adjustment of the 2 distinct known expressions of gait velocity, the velocity of the center of gravity (CG) and the velocity of the center of foot pressure (CP) at the end of the 1st step in 2 experimental situations: natural gait initiation (the control situation, CS) and heel-off gait initiation (the test situation, TS). Gait was initiated by 7 healthy participants, from an erect spontaneous posture in the CS and from a posture with heels raised in the TS, on a force platform at 3 self-selected speed conditions. Biomechanical data from the force platform were collected in both experimental situations, and the authors used a particular gait analysis based on the differential method of Y. Brenière (2003) in order to approach velocity modulation by means of step length and frequency. Results showed that CG and CP velocities were adjusted differently during heel-off gait initiation than during natural gait initiation. CP velocity, as compared with CG velocity, was overestimated in TS. Results also established the relevance of the expression of step velocity by means of step length and frequency: The central nervous system, taking into account the specific postural constraints of each experimental situation, uses a reference value and a regulating parameter to modulate step velocity. Moreover, the contributions of 1st step length and frequency to the expression of step velocity in TS and CS were different. Thus, a specific locomotor behavior corresponds to a given experimental situation that is characterized by its own initial biomechanical constraints.     

How does the visual system distinguish between illuminance and reflectance?

The experiments in which the strengths of pattern and of fusion differing in kind from brightness were used as measures indicated that the visual system could distinguish between illuminance and reflectance. From this result and an observation of gray papers by a microscope, it is assumed that luminance has two aspects, one refers to the macroscopic density of photons and another to the proportion of the reflected microscopic areas to the absorbed microscopic areas so that brightness constancy occurs in relation to each of the patterns of the various sizes from a macroscopic pattern visible to the naked eye to a microscopic pattern not visible. It is also mentioned that the strength of fusion is rare but promising as a measure for analyzing brightness.     

How does the expectancy-value model in psychology explain human action?

The topic discussed is how the expectancy-value model in psychology can be interpreted. A causal interpretation of the model implies that intentions, wants, and beliefs are independent mental causes of human action. A number of arguments against this way of conceptualizing mental events in relation to action are presented. On the basis of these arguments it is concluded that the concepts of 'intention', 'want', 'belief', and the like, cannot be thought of as referring to events that are extrinsic to, and independent of, action and linguistic usage. Intending, wanting, believing, comprise saying and doing things in certain ways and contexts, as well as other events (imagery, feeling, experience) with which action and language belong and are intrinsically related. Relating what people say and do to intentions, wants, beliefs, serves to illuminate or interpret words and deeds, not to point out their independent, extrinisic causes. A causal interpretation of the expectancy-value model, it is concluded, is not tenable.     

How much can people really change?

The basic purpose of pastoral counseling, and counseling in general, is to help people change. Therefore, it's critically important to understand the nature of change and to have realistic expectations with respect to how much people can change. To expect too little change can lead to underachievement and despair, whereas to expect too much change can cause needless frustration and an abiding sense of failure. This article discusses behavioral change, its potential and its limits, from the point of view of genetic potential and offers some specific pastoral implications.