The effects of an escape extinction procedure using protective equipment on self‐injurious behavior

While escape extinction has shown to be successful in reducing escape maintained self‐injurious behavior, there is limited research on the use of escape extinction with protective equipment for escape maintained self‐injurious behavior. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of an escape extinction procedure paired with the application of protective equipment on the escape maintained self‐injurious behavior of an 8‐year‐old boy diagnosed with autism. Results suggested that escape extinction using protective equipment for safety is an effective approach to decrease head hitting. Rates of self‐injurious behavior during an 18‐month follow‐up were comparable to rates observed in the final intervention phase.     

Treatment of self‐injurious behavior using differential punishment of high rates of behavior (DPH)

The purpose of the current investigation was to explore the effectiveness of differential punishment of high rates of behavior (DPH) to treat the severe self‐injury of a 28‐year‐old man with autism in an adult day program setting. DPH procedures involve the use of an established criterion related to a rate of responding within some time interval at which a punisher is delivered. The implementation of DPH in this study resulted in a substantial long‐term reduction of severe self‐injurious behavior. These findings are significant in that they provide a model for the design and implementation of punishment procedures that can be adopted in applied settings where staff resources are limited. The results of this study have implications for the treatment of severe problem behavior among individuals with autism across settings and age groups.     

Relation between self‐knowledge reference and self‐monitoring of emotional state1

Abstract: We used a task facilitation paradigm to examine whether self‐knowledge reference and self‐monitoring have a functional relationship. Eighteen participants performed a series of tasks: self‐knowledge reference, evaluation, self‐monitoring, and semantic. Responses on the self‐knowledge reference task were faster when the previous task was self‐monitoring rather than semantic. However, responses on the self‐monitoring task were similar regardless of whether it was preceded by the self‐knowledge reference task or the evaluation task. Our results suggest that self‐monitoring induces self‐knowledge reference.     

Decreasing self‐injurious behavior associated with awakening in a child with autism and developmental delays

Direct observation data revealed that self‐injurious behavior (SIB) emitted by a young boy with autism occurred primarily within one hour after waking versus all other times of the day. Experimentally manipulated scheduled awakenings supported the hypothesized relation between waking and SIB. A faded‐bedtime procedure was then implemented to stabilize his sleep patterns, which reduced awakenings by 81% and post‐waking SIB by 82%. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Risk factors for nonsuicidal self‐injury in Japanese college students: The moderating role of mood regulation expectancies

Self‐injurious behavior is increasing among college students, and is common in both psychiatric and nonclinical populations. People's engaging in self‐injury is associated with childhood maltreatment, poor negative mood regulation expectancies, and depression. During times of distress, maltreated children without healthy coping strategies tend to have impairment in mood regulation, which contributes to engaging in self‐injury. This study investigated differences between nonsuicidal self‐injury (NSSI) and non‐self‐injury groups in history of childhood maltreatment, negative mood regulation expectancies, and depression in a sample of Japanese college students. We also assessed risk factors for self‐injurious behavior, including mood regulation expectancies as a moderator of the relationship between childhood maltreatment and NSSI. Participants were 313 undergraduate students, who completed anonymous self‐report questionnaires—Deliberate Self‐Harm Inventory, Child Abuse and Trauma Scale, Negative Mood Regulation Scale, and short version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies–Depression Scale. Ten percent (n = 31) of all participants had injured themselves. Consistent with past literature, participants with self‐injury history reported more severe childhood maltreatment, poorer mood regulation expectancies, and more depression, compared to non‐self‐injurers. Frequency of NSSI positively correlated with childhood maltreatment and depression, and negatively correlated with negative mood regulation expectancies. Regression analysis revealed that stronger expectancies for negative mood regulation interacted with maltreatment to predict self‐injury: More maltreatment was associated with more self‐injury, particularly among those with weaker expectancies. Results suggested childhood maltreatment, low expectancies for negative mood regulation, and depression predicted self‐injury. Consistent with our moderation hypothesis, strong expectancies for negative mood regulation buffered the effects of childhood maltreatment, reducing the risk for self‐injury.     

Functional analysis of self‐injury maintained by automatic reinforcement: exposing masked social functions

Two functional analyses for self‐injurious behavior (SIB) exhibited by a child diagnosed with mental retardation and autism were conducted. Responding was high and undifferentiated in the first functional analysis, indicating that SIB was maintained by automatic reinforcement. During the second functional analysis, the client wore a padded helmet and all SIB was blocked. SIB decreased in all conditions except attention, suggesting that SIB was multiply controlled (social positive and automatic reinforcement). Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using self‐monitoring and differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior to decrease repetitive behaviors: A case study

We used a reversal design to evaluate the effects of a self‐monitoring system and differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior on decreasing repetitive body movements in a child with autism. A trial‐based functional analysis revealed that repetitive body movements were maintained by automatic reinforcement. Treatment consisted of teaching the participant to use a self‐monitoring system to monitor the occurrence of repetitive body movements. A stimulus control analysis revealed the self‐monitoring system acquired stimulus control over the repetitive body movements, in that they were more likely to occur in the absence of the system than in its presence. The self‐monitoring system was implemented with a differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior, and their combined effects were evaluated within a reversal design. Repetitive body movements decreased with the implementation of the treatment. The use of self‐monitoring systems to target problem behavior is discussed.     

Leadership predictors of innovation and task performance: Subordinates' self‐esteem and self‐presentation as moderators

This study examined self‐related subordinate variables as moderators of relationships between supervisors' leadership behaviours (transformational as well as active‐corrective transactional leadership) and subordinates' innovative behaviour and task performance. Based on behavioural plasticity and self‐monitoring theory, we hypothesized that these associations would be moderated by subordinates' organization‐based self‐esteem and by their propensity to modify self‐presentation, a major facet of the self‐monitoring construct. Field survey data (N=161) collected in research and development, marketing and human resources departments of several German companies revealed that transformational leadership positively predicted both criteria, whereas active‐corrective transactional leadership negatively predicted innovation. As hypothesized, transformational leadership related more strongly and positively to innovation for subordinates low in organization‐based self‐esteem. When subordinates were low in self‐presentation propensity, active‐corrective transactional leadership was negatively, and transformational leadership was positively associated with task performance.     

The stability and causal effects of task‐specific and generalized self‐efficacy in college1

This research investigated the stability and causal effects of task‐specific self‐efficacy and generalized self‐efficacy in college students. In Study 1, task‐specific self‐efficacy and generalized self‐efficacy scales were administered to university students (N = 237) on two occasions, with an interval of 2 months. In Study 2, task‐specific (care‐work) self‐efficacy and generalized self‐efficacy scales were administered to college students who were studying to be care workers (N = 49) on three occasions (before the first care‐work practicum, after the practicum, and 3 months later). The results of both studies indicated that generalized self‐efficacy was more stable than task‐specific self‐efficacy. In Study 1, both generalized self‐efficacy and task‐specific self‐efficacy affected each other in daily life. Study 2 examined the effects of an ego‐engaged experience (the first care‐work practicum) for task‐specific (care‐work) self‐efficacy and generalized self‐efficacy. The results indicated that changes in care‐work self‐efficacy did not affect generalized self‐efficacy.     

Effect of video self‐monitoring on procedural integrity

A video self‐monitoring treatment package was used to evaluate the procedural integrity of staff implementing behavioral guidelines for one child with autism. Staff members with low procedural integrity scores were asked to participate. The treatment package incorporated an implementation video which reviewed the relevant behavioral guidelines and a procedural integrity monitoring system. Each participant was taught to score a pre‐training video, which highlighted components of implementing behavioral guidelines, with a procedural integrity tool denoting correct implementation of the procedures. The participant then scored their own baseline video using a similar tool constructed to highlight the target student's behavior plan. Participant scores were compared to experimenter scores and verbal feedback was given by the experimenter if the scores varied. Results showed increased procedural integrity implementing the behavior guidelines from baseline to 100% implementation for two out of three participants. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Student self‐efficacy narratives: A collaborative co‐constructive method

This article outlines the challenges faced by mature‐aged students transitioning to higher education and presents a method of assisting these students to reflect on ways in which they have overcome past difficulties in terms of their self‐efficacy. For the purpose of the study, self‐efficacy was conceptualised as an individual initiating action to engage in a given task, applying effort to the task, and persisting in the face of obstacles to successfully complete the task. The main aim of the article is to explicate a research method that involves a cyclical and iterative process using qualitative interview data from the population of interest, namely four female mature‐aged students starting an undergraduate degree. The method is highly collaborative, with narratives co‐constructed by the researcher and participants as they are guided in reflecting on those experiences that constitute a sense of self‐efficacy, in narrative and by narrative. The article briefly reports on a research study to illustrate the method and lists the main themes emerging from the narratives. The article concludes with an evaluation by the participants of being involved in the research process, with positive implications for the utility of the method with mature‐aged students and possibly other cohorts.     

Treatment of self‐injury correlated with mechanical restraints

Mechanical arm restraints were used to decrease hand‐to‐head self‐injurious behavior (SIB) exhibited by a 16‐year‐old female with severe mental retardation. Although mechanical restraints reduced hand‐to‐head SIB, they were correlated with an increase in other topographies of SIB (e.g., head banging). These other topographies were not significantly affected by the addition of an environmental enrichment procedure, but were immediately and almost completely suppressed when contingent exercise was added. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Extended analysis and treatment of self‐injurious behavior

In experiment 1, an extended functional analysis of self‐injury was conducted with a 21‐year‐old male diagnosed with autism and profound mental retardation. The multielement phase yielded undifferentiated results. Subsequent blocking of conditions plus the addition of a component allowing access to multiple sensory stimuli suggested that self‐injury was unrelated to programmed positive or negative reinforcement contingencies. The behavior appeared to be automatically reinforced; its occurrence decreased when access to alternative sensory stimuli was provided. Experiment 2 evaluated a treatment condition in which response‐independent access to these sensory stimuli was provided within the participant's everyday environment. Baseline and treatment frequencies of self‐injury were compared in a combined, multiple‐baseline‐across‐settings and ABAB design. The level of self‐injury decreased substantially during treatment. These results support the use of extended analog analyses of aberrant behavior in instances in which undifferentiated responding occurs in the initial analogue analysis. Additionally, a procedure is described for generalizing the intervention derived from the experimental analysis into the participant's everyday environment. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

DECREASING SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR AND FADING SELF‐RESTRAINT IN A STUDENT WITH AUTISM AND TOURETTE SYNDROME

This clinical case study was conducted with a student diagnosed with autism and Tourette syndrome who displayed severe self‐injurious behavior (SIB). Behavioral assessments and observations suggested that the student demonstrated less SIB during a self‐restraint, where he wrapped his hands tightly in a large blanket. We used an ABAB design with fading to reduce the size of the blanket to keep rates of SIB low. In addition, we also used a fixed interval reinforcement schedule and extinction during the intervention/restraint phases. Results indicated that the student maintained near‐zero rates of SIB for 6 months after use of the blanket was eliminated. Results and implications for practice and future research are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Two‐year‐olds’ understanding of self‐symbols

This study investigated 48 2.5‐year‐olds’ ability to map from their own body to a two‐dimensional self‐representation and also examined relations between parents’ talk about body representations and their children's understanding of self‐symbols. Children participated in two dual‐representation tasks in which they were asked to match body parts between a symbol and its referent. In one task, they used a self‐symbol and in the other they used a symbol for a doll. Participants were also read a book about body parts by a parent. As a group, children found the self‐symbol task more difficult than the doll‐task; however, those whose parents explicitly pointed out the relation between their children's bodies and the symbols in the book performed better on the self‐symbol task. The findings demonstrate that 2‐year‐old children have difficulty comprehending a self‐symbol, even when it is two‐dimensional and approximately the same size as them, and suggest that parents’ talk about self‐symbols may facilitate their understanding.     

Nothing or the opposite: intersecting terror management and objective self‐awareness

The human capacity for self‐awareness allows people to envision their eventual death and thus creates the potential for debilitating anxiety. Terror management research has shown that self‐awareness exacerbates the experience of mortality salience. I suggest that self‐awareness alone can induce mortality salience through dialectical thinking. If constructs include a concept and its opposite, then focusing on one aspect should also increase awareness of the opposite. Focusing on the existing object self should thus lead to the recognition of the non‐existent self that is implied. In study 1, participants experienced one of two self‐awareness manipulations (exposure to a mirror, perceiving the self as distinctive) or no manipulation; mortality salience was measured using a death‐relevant word completion task. Both self‐awareness conditions reported significantly higher mortality salience than the control condition. In study 2, participants exposed to their reflection reported increased death salience and life salience (as measured by death‐ and life‐relevant word completion tasks) than a control group, which directly suggests that self‐awareness leads people to dialectically consider opposing facets of the self. Terror management and objective self‐awareness theories might thus be more intimately tied than was previously thought. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

UTILIZATION OF VIDEO MODELING COMBINED WITH SELF‐MONITORING TO INCREASE RATES OF ON‐TASK BEHAVIOR

The study investigated the effectiveness of an intervention package consisting of self‐monitoring and video modeling to increase on‐task behavior during independent seatwork time in math. Four students in either the second or third grade, identified as displaying high rates of off‐task behavior by their classroom teacher, were included in the study. Results showed immediate, large, and durable changes in on‐task behavior for each of the four participants. At baseline, on‐task behavior of the participants while working on independent math assignments was displayed in 47% of the intervals observed. During the intervention, the participants' average rate of on‐task behavior increased to 85% of the intervals observed. Mean Busk and Serlin (1994) effect size for all four participants was 5.60, with a percentage of non‐overlapping data points effect size of 100%. Observations of the participants 3 weeks following the termination of the study showed that the gains in on‐task behavior were maintained. Both teacher and participant feedbacks concerning the use and effectiveness of the intervention package were positive. Results of the investigation suggest that the intervention package may be an effective and socially valid method for addressing off‐task behaviors of students within the classroom. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Interpersonal self‐support and attentional bias on negative and positive interpersonal information

Interpersonal self‐support is an indigenous Chinese personality concept. It represents the idealized notion of the kind of personality traits that help individuals deal with interpersonal problems and develop and maintain the harmonic and appropriate social relationships required in China's collectivistic and interdependent culture. It also was assumed to be a protective personality factor with regard to mental health and was found to be negatively related to psychosomatic symptoms. In the current study, cognitive processing of interpersonal information is assumed to be an underlying mechanism that connects interpersonal self‐support with interpersonal relationships and mental health. To test this hypothesis, we conducted two experiments to investigate whether attentional bias on positive and negative interpersonal information was related to high and low interpersonal self‐support. A spatial cueing task and the emotional Stroop task were administered to two samples of high and low interpersonal self‐support Chinese undergraduate students to measure attentional bias. The results from both experiments suggested that high interpersonal self‐support students had an attentional bias toward positive interpersonal information, while low interpersonal self‐support students preferentially attended to negative interpersonal information. Study 1 indicated that attentional bias toward positive interpersonal information was easily engaged in the high interpersonal self‐support group, while attentional bias toward negative interpersonal information was both easy to engage and difficult to disengage in the low interpersonal self‐support students. These results support our hypotheses that high interpersonal self‐support people engage in positive processing of interpersonal information, whereas low interpersonal self‐support people engage in negative processing of interpersonal information. The differential balance between positive and negative processing on interpersonal information may explain why interpersonal self‐support predicts both mental health and interpersonal relationships. In addition, the relational schema may explain why interpersonal self‐support is associated with an attentional bias toward interpersonal information.     

Self‐management of varied responding in three students with autism

One of the aspects of autism that is often held up as a hallmark of the disorder is a desire for sameness. Students with autism often show a marked lack of variability in language and play skills. The same behavioral patterns are repeated perseveratively, rather than attempting new patterns. In the current study, students diagnosed with autism were taught to self‐manage varied responding. Using a multiple baseline design, three children with autism were taught to self‐monitor and then to self‐manage in order to increase variability in play and social language. All three students demonstrated marked increases in variability during self‐management phases. These gains were maintained at one month follow‐up. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Parental authority,nurturance, and two‐dimensional self‐esteem

Tafarodi, R. W., Wild, N. & Ho, C. (2010). Parental authority, nurturance, and two‐dimensional self‐esteem. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. This study examined the relations of parental permissiveness, authoritativeness, authoritarianism, and nurturance with two dimensions of self‐esteem – self‐liking and self‐competence. In a sample of 207 two‐parent families, university students and both their parents provided independent reports on all the above variables. Covariance structure analysis was used to eliminate reporter‐specific bias and unreliability in predicting student self‐esteem from parenting behavior. The results revealed highly redundant positive associations of mothers’ and fathers’ authoritativeness and nurturance with both self‐liking and self‐competence. The pattern of these associations suggests that the significance of parental authoritativeness for the child’s self‐esteem is due mainly to the nurturance it provides. Contrary to expectation, mothers’ and fathers’ authoritarianism was also positively associated with self‐liking. As discussed, however, this is likely to be an artifact of the specific measures and testing methods used.