Problem behavior maintained by a precurrent relation

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior is a well-established treatment for problem behavior in which the functional reinforcer is delivered after the occurrence of a replacement behavior and withheld after the occurrence of problem behavior. However, sometimes problem behavior continues to occur under these conditions, raising a question as to why problem behavior might maintain when its reinforcer is withheld. This study examined the possibility that problem behavior could be maintained indirectly in a precurrent relation. A functional analysis was conducted to identify a response-response relation between self-injurious behavior (SIB) and an alternative response. The results suggest that SIB was maintained by its relation with the alternative response.     

Assessment and treatment of problem behavior maintained by mand compliance

We modified functional analysis procedures to include a condition in which we reinforced problem behavior by complying with a child's mands. After identifying compliance with mands as a reinforcer, we evaluated the efficacy of a token system with a response‐cost contingency and incorporated discriminative stimuli to signal when mands would be reinforced. The token system with response cost effectively reduced problem behavior. Similar procedures may be beneficial when continuous adult compliance is not possible, when adults want to control when they will comply with the child's mands, or to build a child's tolerance for adult‐directed situations.     

A DEMONSTRATION OF INDIVIDUAL PREFERENCE FOR NOVEL MANDS DURING FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING

Preference for mand topography was evaluated for 2 individuals with developmental disabilities who exhibited problem behavior. The results of a functional analysis showed that each participant's problem behavior was maintained by social reinforcement. Participants were taught two novel mand topographies for the same functional reinforcer, and each proved to be effective in reducing problem behavior. Finally, preference for mand topography was assessed within a concurrent‐schedules design. Results indicated that functional communication training was an effective treatment, regardless of the mand used, and that each participant demonstrated a preference for one mand topography relative to the other.     

FURTHER ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR IN RESPONSE CLASS HIERARCHIES

A functional analysis identified the reinforcers for 3 participants' problem behavior, but only relatively mild problem behaviors (e.g., screaming, disruption) were observed when all topographies produced tested consequences. We then conducted an extinction analysis in which specific topographies produced a reinforcer while all other topographies were on extinction. The extinction analysis confirmed that the same reinforcer identified in the initial functional analysis maintained more severe topographies of problem behavior (e.g., aggression). In addition, results of the extinction analysis indicated that 2 of the participants displayed patterns of responding consistent with a response class hierarchy hypothesis, in which less severe problem behavior frequently occurred prior to more severe topographies. The 3rd participant displayed a response pattern indicative of differential reinforcement effects.     

A paradoxical effect of presession attention on stereotypy: antecedent attention as an establishing, not an abolishing, operation

Previous studies have shown that presession attention for problem behavior can serve as an abolishing operation when attention functions as a positive reinforcer. In the current study, we show that the stereotypy of a child with severe disabilities was undifferentiated during standard analogue functional analysis conditions. However, when noncontingent presession attention was provided, stereotypy occurred for social attention as a positive reinforcer, suggesting that the antecedent manipulation functioned as an establishing operation.     

ESTABLISHING DISCRIMINATIVE CONTROL OF RESPONDING USING FUNCTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE REINFORCERS DURING FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING

Functional communication training (FCT) is a popular treatment for problem behaviors, but its effectiveness may be compromised when the client emits the target communication response and reinforcement is either delayed or denied. In the current investigation, we trained 2 individuals to emit different communication responses to request (a) the reinforcer for destructive behavior in a given situation (e.g., contingent attention in the attention condition of a functional analysis) and (b) an alternative reinforcer (e.g., toys in the attention condition of a functional analysis). Next, we taught the participants to request each reinforcer in the presence of a different discriminative stimulus (S^D). Then, we evaluated the effects of differential reinforcement of communication (DRC) using the functional and alternative reinforcers and correlated S^Ds, with and without extinction of destructive behavior. During all applications, DRC (in combination with S^Ds that signaled available reinforcers) rapidly reduced destructive behavior to low levels regardless of whether the functional reinforcer or an alternative reinforcer was available or whether reinforcement for destructive behavior was discontinued (i.e., extinction).     

Additional free reinforcers increase persistence of problem behavior in a clinical context: A partial replication of laboratory findings

Behavioral momentum theory is a quantitative framework used to characterize the persistence of behavior during response disruptors as a function of baseline stimulus–reinforcer relations. Results of several investigations have shown that alternative reinforcement can increase the resistance to change of a target response during extinction. In the present study, concomitant variable‐interval fixed‐time schedules of reinforcement for problem behavior were employed to simulate naturalistic situations involving the superimposition of response‐independent reinforcers on a baseline schedule of reinforcement for problem behavior, as in the common use of noncontingent reinforcement treatments. Resistance to change of problem behavior was assessed during postsession periods of extinction by comparing response rates in extinction following sessions with and without additional reinforcer deliveries arranged by fixed‐time schedules. For 2 out of 3 participants, problem behavior tended to be more resistant to extinction following periods in which additional fixed‐time reinforcers were delivered. These results are discussed in terms of potential effects of noncontingent reinforcement on problem behavior when the intervention is discontinued or implemented without good treatment integrity.     

THE EFFECTS OF RESPONSE EFFICIENCY ON FUNCTIONALLY EQUIVALENT COMPETING BEHAVIORS

Three experiments addressed the role of response efficiency in the application of functional equivalence training. Functional equivalence training includes conducting a functional assessment of the problem behavior. Variables that predict and maintain the problem behavior are defined, and socially appropriate, functionally equivalent skills are identified and taught. The logic is that if the learner has a socially appropriate way to achieve the same function, he or she will be less likely to use problem behaviors. This study examined the role of response efficiency in functional equivalence training. Response efficiency was examined in terms of three variables: (a) physical effort, (b) schedule of reinforcement, and (c) the time delay between presentation of the discriminative stimulus and reinforcer delivery. Each of the three experiments involved a person who performed a set of problem behaviors and a functional assessment of the problem behaviors. A socially appropriate alternative response was taught, but this new response was less efficient than the problem behavior on one of the efficiency variables (effort, schedule, delay in time). The new behaviors did not compete successfully with the problem behaviors until a new, more efficient, alternative behavior was taught. These results are discussed in terms of our understanding of response covariation and the need in applied contexts to include response efficiency in any functional analysis assessment.     

Extended analysis and treatment of self‐injurious behavior

In experiment 1, an extended functional analysis of self‐injury was conducted with a 21‐year‐old male diagnosed with autism and profound mental retardation. The multielement phase yielded undifferentiated results. Subsequent blocking of conditions plus the addition of a component allowing access to multiple sensory stimuli suggested that self‐injury was unrelated to programmed positive or negative reinforcement contingencies. The behavior appeared to be automatically reinforced; its occurrence decreased when access to alternative sensory stimuli was provided. Experiment 2 evaluated a treatment condition in which response‐independent access to these sensory stimuli was provided within the participant's everyday environment. Baseline and treatment frequencies of self‐injury were compared in a combined, multiple‐baseline‐across‐settings and ABAB design. The level of self‐injury decreased substantially during treatment. These results support the use of extended analog analyses of aberrant behavior in instances in which undifferentiated responding occurs in the initial analogue analysis. Additionally, a procedure is described for generalizing the intervention derived from the experimental analysis into the participant's everyday environment. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Functional analysis and treatment of elopement.

Elopement is a dangerous behavior because children who run away may encounter life-threatening situations (e.g., traffic). We conducted functional analyses of the elopement of 3 children who had been diagnosed with developmental disabilities. The results identified a maintaining reinforcer for the elopement of 1 child, but the data were difficult to interpret for 2 of the children. Subsequent reinforcer assessments were used to help to clarify the reinforcers for elopement for these 2 children. Results of the functional analyses and reinforcer assessments then were used to develop successful treatments to reduce elopement. The findings are discussed in terms of (a) the application of functional analysis methodology to elopement, (b) the use of reinforcer assessments to identify potential reinforcers when standard functional analyses are undifferentiated, and (c) the utility of assessment-based treatments for elopement.     

Effects of signaled and unsignaled alternative reinforcement on persistence and relapse in children and pigeons

Three experiments explored the impact of different reinforcer rates for alternative behavior (DRA) on the suppression and post‐DRA relapse of target behavior, and the persistence of alternative behavior. All experiments arranged baseline, intervention with extinction of target behavior concurrently with DRA, and post‐treatment tests of resurgence or reinstatement, in two‐ or three‐component multiple schedules. Experiment 1, with pigeons, arranged high or low baseline reinforcer rates; both rich and lean DRA schedules reduced target behavior to low levels. When DRA was discontinued, the magnitude of relapse depended on both baseline reinforcer rate and the rate of DRA. Experiment 2, with children exhibiting problem behaviors, arranged an intermediate baseline reinforcer rate and rich or lean signaled DRA. During treatment, both rich and lean DRA rapidly reduced problem behavior to low levels, but post‐treatment relapse was generally greater in the DRA‐rich than the DRA‐lean component. Experiment 3, with pigeons, repeated the low‐baseline condition of Experiment 1 with signaled DRA as in Experiment 2. Target behavior decreased to intermediate levels in both DRA‐rich and DRA‐lean components. Relapse, when it occurred, was directly related to DRA reinforcer rate as in Experiment 2. The post‐treatment persistence of alternative behavior was greater in the DRA‐rich component in Experiment 1, whereas it was the same or greater in the signaled‐DRA‐lean component in Experiments 2 and 3. Thus, infrequent signaled DRA may be optimal for effective clinical treatment.     

Comparisons of synthesized and individual reinforcement contingencies during functional analysis

Researchers typically modify individual functional analysis (FA) conditions after results are inconclusive (Hanley, Iwata, & McCord, 2003). Hanley, Jin, Vanselow, and Hanratty (2014) introduced a marked departure from this practice, using an interview‐informed synthesized contingency analysis (IISCA). In the test condition, they delivered multiple contingencies simultaneously (e.g., attention and escape) after each occurrence of problem behavior; in the control condition, they delivered those same reinforcers noncontingently and continuously. In the current investigation, we compared the results of the IISCA with a more traditional FA in which we evaluated each putative reinforcer individually. Four of 5 participants displayed destructive behavior that was sensitive to the individual contingencies evaluated in the traditional FA. By contrast, none of the participants showed a response pattern consistent with the assumption of the IISCA. We discuss the implications of these findings on the development of accurate and efficient functional analyses.     

Utility of extinction-induced response variability for the selection of mands

Functional communication training (FCT; Carr & Durand, 1985) is a commonly used differential reinforcement procedure for replacing problem behavior with socially acceptable alternative responses. Most studies in the FCT literature consist of demonstrations of the maintenance of responding when various treatment components (e.g., extinction, punishment) are present and absent (e.g., Fisher et al., 1993; Wacker et al., 1990). Relatively little research on FCT has (a) evaluated the conditions under which alternative responses are acquired or (b) described procedures with technological precision. Thus, additional research on a cogent technology for response acquisition appears to be warranted. In the current study, we evaluated the efficacy of exposing problem behavior to extinction for inducing response variability as a tool for selecting an alternative response during FCT. Once participants engaged in appropriate alternative responses, the reinforcer identified in the functional analysis as maintaining problem behavior was delivered contingent on the alternative behavior. Results showed that exposing problem behavior to extinction was a useful method for producing alternative behaviors during FCT.     

Behavioral control by the response–reinforcer correlation

Using a discrete‐trials procedure, two experiments examined the effects of response–reinforcer correlations on responding while controlling molecular variables that operated at the moment of reinforcer delivery (e.g., response–reinforcer temporal contiguity, interresponse times preceding reinforcement). Each trial consisted of three successive components: Response, Timeout, and Reinforcement, with the duration of each component held constant. The correlation between the number of responses in the Response component and reinforcer deliveries in the Reinforcement component was varied. In the Positive‐correlation condition, a larger number of responses in the Response component programmed a higher reinforcement rate (Experiment 1) or a shorter time to reinforcement (Experiment 2) in the Reinforcement component. Although programmed in this way, the actual reinforcer delivery was dependent on, and occurred immediately after, a response in the Reinforcement component. In the Zero‐correlation condition, the programmed rates of reinforcement (Experiment 1) or the times to reinforcement (Experiment 2) in the Reinforcement component of each trial were yoked to those in the preceding Positive‐correlation condition. Responding in the Response component was higher in the Positive‐ than in the Zero‐correlation condition, without systematic changes in molecular variables. The results suggest that the response–reinforcer correlation can be a controlling variable of behavior.     

Parent‐conducted rapid assessment of attention types for the treatment of attention‐maintained problem behavior

When praise is not a reinforcer for alternative behavior in the treatment of attention‐maintained problem behavior, further pretreatment assessments are warranted to develop an effective treatment. The current study reports a replication of the pretreatment rapid assessment of attention types (RAAT) procedures, implemented by the parents of a 19‐year‐old female with attention‐maintained problem behavior. After administering staff and parent‐conducted RAATs, a parent‐implemented treatment, (a) produced clinically significant decreases in problem behavior, and (b) confirmed that the RAAT identified an attention‐type that served as a reinforcer for appropriate alternative behavior. This study extends the findings of Strohmeier et al. by reporting results of a parent‐conducted RAAT and treatment evaluation. The findings highlight the practical importance of pretreatment assessment of attention‐types, with emphasis on caregiver involvement, to develop effective treatments for attention‐maintained problem behavior.     

Stimulus–reinforcer relations established during training determine resistance to extinction and relapse via reinstatement

The baseline rate of a reinforced target response decreases with the availability of response‐independent sources of alternative reinforcement; however, resistance to disruption and relapse increases. Because many behavioral treatments for problem behavior include response‐dependent reinforcement of alternative behavior, the present study assessed whether response‐dependent alternative reinforcement also decreases baseline response rates but increases resistance to extinction and relapse. We reinforced target responding at equal rates across two components of a multiple schedule with pigeons. We compared resistance to extinction and relapse via reinstatement of (1) a target response trained concurrently with a reinforced alternative response in one component with (2) a target response trained either concurrently or in separate components from the alternative response across conditions. Target response rates trained alone in baseline were higher but resistance to extinction and relapse via reinstatement tests were greater after training concurrently with the alternative response. In another assessment, training target and alternative responding together, but separating them during extinction and reinstatement tests, produced equal resistance to extinction and relapse. Together, these findings are consistent with behavioral momentum theory—operant response–reinforcer relations determined baseline response rates but Pavlovian stimulus–reinforcer relations established during training determined resistance to extinction and relapse. These findings imply that reinforcing alternative behavior to treat problem behavior could initially reduce rates but increase persistence.     

Functional analysis and treatment of aggression maintained by preferred conversational topics

After an initial functional analysis of a participant's aggression showed unclear outcomes, we conducted preference and reinforcer assessments to identify preferred forms of attention that may maintain problem behavior. Next, we conducted an extended functional analysis that included a modified attention condition. Results showed that the participant's aggression was maintained by access to preferred conversational topics. A function-based intervention decreased aggression and increased an appropriate communicative response.     

A comparison of existing and novel communication responses used during functional communication training

Functional communication training (FCT) is a procedure used to teach a communicative response that results in the same reinforcer found to maintain problem behavior. Previous research has demonstrated that high levels of problem behavior may be observed during FCT when reinforcing an existing response due to a history of reinforcement for both existing responses and problem behavior. This study compared the effects of reinforcing an existing and novel communicative response during FCT on the rate of problem behavior for two children diagnosed with autism. Additionally, we assessed preference for either the existing or novel response using a concurrent schedules arrangement. The results demonstrated that the existing and novel communication responses were associated with low levels of problem behavior for both participants. Also, both participants preferred the novel response. We conclude with a discussion of practical applications of the analysis and avenues for future research.     

Accumulated reinforcers increase academic responding and suppress problem behavior for students with Attention‐Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

We compared rates of academic responses and problem behavior during mathematics with distributed and accumulated reinforcer arrangements for 3 students with Attention‐Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder who engaged in chronic, severe problem behavior. All 3 students engaged in more academic responding and less problem behavior when reinforcers accumulated throughout the session, relative to conditions in which reinforcers were distributed throughout the session or withheld completely. We then conducted concurrent‐chain analyses to evaluate student preference for the reinforcer arrangements. Two students preferred distributed reinforcers, even though this arrangement continued to produce problem behavior. One student preferred accumulated reinforcers. Our data replicate previous findings regarding the efficacy of accumulated‐reinforcer arrangements, but suggest that students do not always prefer the most efficacious reinforcer arrangement.