The coupling between gaze behavior and opponent kinematics during anticipation of badminton shots

PurposeWe examined links between the kinematics of an opponent’s actions and the visual search behaviors of badminton players responding to those actions.MethodA kinematic analysis of international standard badminton players (n = 4) was undertaken as they completed a range of serves. Video of these players serving was used to create a life-size temporal occlusion test to measure anticipation responses. Expert (n = 8) and novice (n = 8) badminton players anticipated serve location while wearing an eye movement registration system.ResultsDuring the execution phase of the opponent’s movement, the kinematic analysis showed between-shot differences in distance traveled and peak acceleration at the shoulder, elbow, wrist and racket. Experts were more accurate at responding to the serves compared to novice players. Expert players fixated on the kinematic locations that were most discriminating between serve types more frequently and for a longer duration compared to novice players. Moreover, players were generally more accurate at responding to serves when they fixated vision upon the discriminating arm and racket kinematics.ConclusionsFindings extend previous literature by providing empirical evidence that expert athletes’ visual search behaviors and anticipatory responses are inextricably linked to the opponent action being observed.     

Intensive video gaming improves encoding speed to visual short-term memory in young male adults

The purpose of this study was to measure the effect of action video gaming on central elements of visual attention using Bundesen's (1990) Theory of Visual Attention.To examine the cognitive impact of action video gaming, we tested basic functions of visual attention in 42 young male adults. Participants were divided into three groups depending on the amount of time spent playing action video games: non-players (< 2 h/month, N = 12), casual players (4–8 h/month, N = 10), and experienced players (> 15 h/month, N = 20). All participants were tested in three tasks which tap central functions of visual attention and short-term memory: a test based on the Theory of Visual Attention (TVA), an enumeration test and finally the Attentional Network Test (ANT). The results show that action video gaming does not seem to impact the capacity of visual short-term memory. However, playing action video games does seem to improve the encoding speed of visual information into visual short-term memory and the improvement does seem to depend on the time devoted to gaming. This suggests that intense action video gaming improves basic attentional functioning and that this improvement generalizes into other activities. The implications of these findings for cognitive rehabilitation training are discussed.     

Evolution of match performance parameters for various playing positions in the English Premier League

This study aimed to investigate position-specific evolution of physical and technical performance parameters in the English Premier League (EPL). Match performance observations (n = 14700) were collected using a multiple-camera computerized tracking system across seven seasons (2006–07 to 2012–13). Data were analyzed relative to five playing positions: central defenders (n = 3792), full backs (n = 3420), central midfielders (n = 3200), wide midfielders (n = 2136) and attackers (n = 2152). High-intensity running distance increased in the final season versus the first season in all playing positions (p < .05, ES: 0.9–1.3) with full backs displaying the greatest increase (∼36% higher in 2012–13). Similar trends were observed for sprint distance with full backs demonstrating the most pronounced increase across the seven seasons (36–63%, p < .001, ES: 0.8–1.3). Central players (central defenders and midfielders) illustrated the most pronounced increases in total passes and pass success rate (p < .05, ES: 0.7–0.9) whilst wide players (full backs and wide midfielders) demonstrated only small-moderate increases in total passes and pass success rate (p < .05, ES: 0.6–0.8). The data demonstrates that evolving tactics in the EPL have impacted on the physical demands of wide players and the technical requirements of central players. These findings could be used for talent identification or position-specific physical and technical training.     

Match performance and physical capacity of players in the top three competitive standards of English professional soccer

The aim of this study was to compare the match performance and physical capacity of players in the top three competitive standards of English soccer. Match performance data were collected from players in the FA Premier League (n = 190), Championship (n = 155) and League 1 (n = 366) using a multiple-camera system. In addition, a selection of players from the Premier League (n = 56), Championship (n = 61) and League 1 (n = 32) performed the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test level 2 (Yo-Yo IE2) to determine physical capacity. Players in League 1 and the Championship performed more (p < .01) high-intensity running than those in the Premier League (Effect Size [ES]: 0.4–1.0). Technical indicators such as pass completion, frequency of forward and total passes, balls received and average touches per possession were 4–39% higher (p < .01) in the Premier League compared to lower standards (ES: 0.3–0.6). Players also covered more (p < .05) high-intensity running when moving down (n = 20) from the Premier League to the Championship (ES: 0.4) but not when players moved up (n = 18) standards (ES: 0.2). Similar Yo-Yo IE2 test performances were observed in Premier League, Championship and League 1 players (ES: 0.2–0.3). Large magnitude relationships (p < .05) were observed between Yo-Yo IE2 test performances and the total and high-intensity running distance covered in both Championship (r = .56 and .64) and Premier League matches (r = .61 and .54). The data demonstrate that high-intensity running distance was greater in players at lower compared to higher competitive standards despite a similar physical capacity in a subsample of players in each standard. These findings could be associated with technical characteristics inherent to lower standards that require players to tax their physical capacity to a greater extent but additional research is still required to confirm these findings.     

Self-concept as a risky driver: Mediating the relationship between racing video games and on-road driving violations in a community-based sample

PurposeThe mediating relationship of self-conceptions as a risky driver on self-reported driving violations was examined for players of “drive’em up” and “circuit” racing video games using an Internet survey of automobile and racing club members. Structural equation modelling (SEM) tested Fischer et al. (2012) extended socio-cognitive model on the effects of risk-glorifying media on cognitions and actions.MethodAn Internet questionnaire was developed and relied upon validated instruments or questions derived from previous surveys. Driver club members were asked about: (1) their frequency of video game playing, (2) self-perceptions as a risky driver and (3) self-reported driving violations. SEM was performed to examine mediating effects of racing video game playing on self-reported driving violations.ResultsPlaying “drive‘em up” video games positively predicted risky self-concept (β = .15, t = 2.26), which in turn, positively predicted driving violations (β = .73, t = 8.63), while playing “circuit racing” games did not predict risky self-concept, although risky self-concept did predict driving violations (β = .72, t = 8.67).ConclusionsSelf-concept as a risky driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing and self-reported driving violations for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” video games. These findings are congruent with Fischer and colleagues’ experimental model that self-concept as a reckless driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” games and risk-taking behavior in a video of road traffic scenarios.     

An especial skill in elite wheelchair basketball players

We aimed to investigate whether an especial skill is present in elite wheelchair basketball players when taking twenty shots with a regular basketball from five different distances (11 ft, 13 ft, 17 ft, & 19 ft) from the basket including the free throw line (15 ft). Twelve elite male basketball players participated. The results showed that as distance increased shot accuracy decreased in line with force by variability predictions for the 11 ft, 13 ft, 17 ft, & 19 ft distances. However, shot performance at the free throw line where players are more familiar with practicing free throw shots did not follow this trend. A linear regression line was drawn to predict performance at the free throw line based on nearer (11 ft & 13 ft) and farer (17 ft & 19 ft) distances to the basket, this was then compared to actual performance. A significant difference between actual and predicted scores was found (p < .05) supporting the presence of an especial skill. Significant positive correlations were found for the 11 ft and 17 ft distance, age, years of playing, and accumulated practice hours with performance at the 15 ft line (p < .05). These correlations imply the operation of generalization in the especial skill. This observation received support from applying a model in which shot accuracy as a function of distance was approximated by two regression lines.     

Exploration of older drivers’ speeding behaviour

Speeding increases crash risk and resulting injury severity. Older drivers are at increased risk of injury due to frailty, at increased risk of crashing due to slower reaction times, and have less agility judging time and distance compared to younger drivers. However, there is little objective evidence about older drivers’ speeding behaviour. Cross-sectional data from older drivers living in the suburban outskirts of Sydney, Australia, were used to determine the proportion of drivers involved in speed events, and examine factors that may influence this behaviour. Driving speed was estimated in approximately one-second intervals using Global Positioning System (GPS) location. Speed events were defined as driving 1 km/h or more, with 3% tolerance, above a single speed limit, averaged over 30-s of travel. Driving data from one-week were recorded for 344 participants aged 75–94 years (median 80). The majority of participants (78%) were involved in a speed event. Speed events per participant ranged from zero to 186 (median 8). Younger participants, those living in rural areas, and those driving on familiar roads closer to home were more likely to be involved in speed events adjusted for distance driven. In addition, rural residents were more likely to be involved in speed events when they had not been a driver involved in a crash during the previous year compared to those involved in a crash. Measures of visual and cognitive function did not predict involvement with speed events per distance (p > 0.2). These findings are important for policy-makers and researchers addressing older drivers’ speeding to reduce the incidence of crashes and resulting fatalities and injuries. As no evidence was found for speeding being associated with functional decline, countermeasures to address speeding for other drivers seem likely to be relevant to older drivers.     

Match play demands of 11 versus 11 professional football using Global Positioning System tracking: Variations across common playing formations

This study aimed to examine Global Positioning System (GPS) determined movement patterns across the 5 most common playing formations (4-4-2; 4-3-3; 3-5-2; 3-4-3; 4-2-3-1) employed in 11 versus 11 football match play in England. Elite male footballers (n = 46) were monitored over the course of a season; total distance (TD), high speed running (HSR), high metabolic load distance (HMLD), high speed accelerations (Acc) and decelerations (Dec) data was collected for analysis. It was found that 3-5-2 formation elicited higher TD (10528 ± 565 m, p = 0.05), HSR (642 ± 215 m, p = 0.001), and HMLD (2025 ± 304 m, p = 0.001) than all other formations and above average Acc and Dec (34 ± 7, p = 0.036 and 57 ± 10, p = 0.006), with 4-2-3-1 eliciting the highest Acc and Dec (38 ± 8 and 61 ± 12). Positional data showed that CM in 4-3-3 covered >11% TD than in 4-4-2 (p = 0.012). FW in 3-5-2 covered >45% HSR than in 4-2-3-1 (p = 0.004). CM in 4-3-3 covered >14% HMLD than in 4-4-2 (p = 0.367). FW in 4-3-3 performed >49% accelerations than in 4-2-3-1 (p = 0.293). WD in 3-5-2 performed >20% more decelerations than in 4-4-2 (p = 0.161). This study is important for coaches understanding, that positional physical characteristics are influenced by the demands of playing in different formations during match play.     

The effects of a motivational general-arousal imagery intervention upon preperformance symptoms in male rugby union players

ObjectivesTo investigate the efficacy of a motivational general-arousal based imagery strategy in modifying precompetitive symptom interpretations.MethodA staggered multiple baseline single-subject design was employed with five male collegiate rugby union players (M = 24.5; SD = 3.05). The dependent variable was monitored over a full competitive season via measures of precompetitive anxiety and affect together with follow-up social validation procedures.ResultsMore facilitative interpretations of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety, and greater self-confidence levels were reported postintervention, together with changes in positive and negative affect.ConclusionsThe findings highlight the importance of employing individualized imagery with motivational general-arousal content to modify performers' perceptions of their precompetitive experiences. This effect is proposed to occur directly through adaptive changes in individuals' psychological response systems and indirectly via the protection mechanisms associated with enhanced efficacy expectations.     

The relationship between computer-game preference,gender, and mental-rotation ability

This study examined how computer-game preference relates to mental-rotation test (MRT) performance and to gender differences. Subjects were 861 German secondary-school children (mean age = 14.67; range 10–20 years). Latent class analysis with the data of a computer-game preference scale revealed three types of players: “non-players”, “action-and-simulation game players” and “logic-and-skill-training game players”. Large gender differences were found with respect to class assignment. More females than males were found in the “logic-and-skill-training game player” class (82.9%) and in the class of “non-players” (81.9%). Males in contrast were overrepresented (81.7%) in the class of “action-and-simulation game players”. As expected, males on average outperformed females in mental-rotation test performance (d = 0.63). Furthermore, ANOVA results indicated mean differences in mental-rotation ability between action-and-simulation players and non-players (partial η² = .01) as well as age differences (partial η² = .04). With boys, non-players on average had lower MRT scores than action-and-simulation game players. For females, computer-game preference was unrelated to MRT performance. Results are discussed within a nature–nurture-interactionist framework of gender differences in spatial abilities.     

The relative importance of different perceptual-cognitive skills during anticipation

We examined whether anticipation is underpinned by perceiving structured patterns or postural cues and whether the relative importance of these processes varied as a function of task constraints. Skilled and less-skilled soccer players completed anticipation paradigms in video-film and point light display (PLD) format. Skilled players anticipated more accurately regardless of display condition, indicating that both perception of structured patterns between players and postural cues contribute to anticipation. However, the Skill × Display interaction showed skilled players’ advantage was enhanced in the video-film condition, suggesting that they make better use of postural cues when available during anticipation. We also examined anticipation as a function of proximity to the ball. When participants were near the ball, anticipation was more accurate for video-film than PLD clips, whereas when the ball was far away there was no difference between viewing conditions. Perceiving advance postural cues appears more important than structured patterns when the ball is closer to the observer, whereas the reverse is true when the ball is far away. Various perceptual-cognitive skills contribute to anticipation with the relative importance of perceiving structured patterns and advance postural cues being determined by task constraints and the availability of perceptual information.     

Effects of domain-specific exercise load on speed and accuracy of a domain-specific perceptual-cognitive task

In the context of perceptual-cognitive expertise it is important to know whether physiological loads influence perceptual-cognitive performance. This study examined whether a handball specific physical exercise load influenced participants’ speed and accuracy in a flicker task. At rest and during a specific interval exercise of 86.5–90% HR_max, 35 participants (experts: n = 8, advanced: n = 13, novices, n = 14) performed a handball specific flicker task with two types of patterns (structured and unstructured). For reaction time, results revealed moderate effect sizes for group, with experts reacting faster than advanced and advanced reacting faster than novices, and for structure, with structured videos being performed faster than unstructured ones. A significant interaction for structure × group was also found, with experts and advanced players faster for structured videos, and novices faster for unstructured videos. For accuracy, significant main effects were found for structure with structured videos solved more accurately. A significant interaction for structure × group was revealed, with experts and advanced more accurate for structured scenes and novices more accurate for unstructured scenes. A significant interaction was also found for condition × structure; at rest, unstructured and structured scenes were performed with the same accuracy while under physical exercise, structured scenes were solved more accurately. No other interactions were found. These results were somewhat surprising given previous work in this area, although the impact of a specific physical exercise on a specific perceptual-cognitive task may be different from those tested generally.     

Age-related effects of practice experience on collective behaviours of football players in small-sided games

The purpose of this study was to examine whether offensive and defensive collective behaviours emerging in six-a-side football games (GK+5 vs. 5+GK) varied according to age-related practice experience of young, male players (U16, U17 and U19 yrs). Players’ were not instructed to implement specific tactical plans and their movement trajectories (2D analyses) were recorded using 10 GPS units. Four common measures of team dispersion investigated in previous research (surface area, stretch index, length and width of a team) were used to analyse team performance behaviours. After recording these collective variables, we used sample entropy (SampEn) and cross-sample entropy (Cross-SampEn) measures to assess the regularity and synchronization of participant actions in teams. Results demonstrated clear age-related variations in effects on the collective performance measures analysed. In attacking phases, older and more experienced players occupied a greater surface area and displayed higher values of team width and stretch index. In defensive phases, significant differences were observed in team length and stretch index. Cross-SampEn analysis demonstrated a greater synchronization between offensive and defensive surface areas and team width in older age groups (U17 and U19 yrs). Data suggest how coaches can manipulate practice task constraints to enhance development of team tactical performance behaviours in developing footballers between 16 and 19 yrs of age.     

Kinematic and ground reaction force accommodation during weighted walking

Weighted walking is a functional activity common in daily life and can influence risks for musculoskeletal loading, injury and falling. Much information exists about weighted walking during military, occupational and recreational tasks, but less is known about strategies used to accommodate to weight carriage typical in daily life. The purposes of the study were to examine the effects of weight carriage on kinematics and peak ground reaction force (GRF) during walking, and explore relationships between these variables. Twenty subjects walked on a treadmill while carrying 0, 44.5 and 89 N weights in front of the body. Peak GRF, sagittal plane joint/segment angular kinematics, stride length and center of mass (COM) vertical displacement were measured. Changes in peak GRF and displacement variables between weight conditions represented accommodation. Effects of weight carriage were tested using analysis of variance. Relationships between peak GRF and kinematic accommodation variables were examined using correlation and regression. Subjects were classified into sub-groups based on peak GRF responses and the correlation analysis was repeated. Weight carriage increased peak GRF by an amount greater than the weight carried, decreased stride length, increased vertical COM displacement, and resulted in a more extended and upright posture, with less hip and trunk displacement during weight acceptance. A GRF increase was associated with decreases in hip extension (|r| = .53, p = .020) and thigh anterior rotation (|r| = .57, p = .009) displacements, and an increase in foot anterior rotation displacement (|r| = .58, p = .008). Sub-group analysis revealed that greater GRF increases were associated with changes at multiple sites, while lesser GRF increases were associated with changes in foot and trunk displacement. Weight carriage affected walking kinematics and revealed different accommodation strategies that could have implications for loading and stability.     

Patterns of mother–infant interaction from 3 to 12 months among dyads with substance abuse and psychiatric problems

The aim of this study was to investigate the development of mother–infant interaction patterns from 3 to 12 months among three groups of mother–baby pairs recruited during pregnancy: one group from residential substance abuse treatment (n = 28), a second group from psychiatric outpatient treatment (n = 22), and a third group from well-baby clinics (n = 30). The mother–infant interaction at 3 and 12 months was assessed by the Parent–Child Early Relational Assessment (PCERA), which consists of maternal, child and dyadic subscales (Clark, 2006). Linear mixed effects models were used to analyze group differences and the changes in mother–infant interaction from 3 to 12 months.At 3 months, pairwise comparisons showed that the group with psychiatric problems had significantly more difficulties in the mother–infant interaction than the two other groups. The group with substance abuse problems was not significantly different from the two other groups. At 12 months, the mother–infant pairs in the substance abuse group showed significantly more relational disturbances than the non-clinical pairs, as well as a poorer affective quality of interaction than the dyads in the group with psychiatric problems. Analysis of change from 3 to 12 months showed that difficulties in the interaction increased among the mother–baby pairs in the substance abuse group, while improvements were displayed in the two other groups. These results underline that mother–infant pairs at double risk due to maternal substance abuse and other non-optimal factors, are in need for long-term follow up in order to prevent the development of negative interactional patterns.     

The role of speed and incline in the spontaneous choice of technique in classical roller-skiing

Cross-country skiers change technique depending on terrain (incline) and effort (work rate; speed at a particular incline or resistance). The literature is not unequivocal about the influence of incline or speed on the choice of technique, i.e., which of these act as a ‘control parameter’. Identifying task related control parameters for spontaneous technique shifts assists elucidating which mechanisms are active for triggering technique transitions. The aim of this study was to investigate whether speed or incline acted as such control parameter for technique shifts during classic style roller skiing. In this study, we kept the exercise intensity constant while changing two potential control parameters (speed and incline). Thus, any effect of work rate was excluded.Eight male competitive cross-country skiers performed roller skiing on a treadmill while incline was altered from 3 to 11% and back to 3% each minute by 1% and speed changed accordingly to obtain a constant work rate. This protocol was performed at three submaximal work rates (170, 200, and 230 W) to obtain various combinations of speed and incline.The athletes were free to choose their technique (double poling, double poling with kick and diagonal stride), which was identified using continuous phase analysis on the motion of the skis. Physiological response (heart rate, oxygen uptake) was recorded continuously.The incline seemed to affect choice of technique shift more than speed: the ANOVA for repeated measures on all work rates showed no significant effect of incline (p > 0.2) and an effect for speed (p < 0.001). No effect of protocol order (increasing versus decreasing incline) was found for transitions. The physiological response was lowest for conditions of steep incline-low speed and was affected by protocol order. Cycle rate was affected by incline only in the double poling technique.Possible mechanisms related to the triggering of technique transitions are discussed.     

Speed-calming measures and their effect on driving speed – Test of a new technique measuring speeds based on GNSS data

Speeding increases the risk and severity of accidents, especially for vulnerable road users. Hence, minimisation of speeding in built-up areas is vital. Some countries widely use speed-calming measures (SCs). Documentation shows that SCs reduce speeding considerably although various types and designs of SCs affect this reduction. This paper includes studies of the effects from establishment of sinus speed humps of height 10 cm and length 950 cm and chicanes (with a free carriageway width of 5.30 cm and a length between the 0.5 m wide obstacles of 18 m) as a before/after study where the speed pattern after establishing SCs is compared with the one before. Floating Car Data used for analyses includes 3216 trips passing one/more SCs. The main results are that the effect from SCs decreases with the distance from the SCs and that a clear pattern is hard to establish above 75 m from the SC. Despite the apparent absence of more distant effects of each SC, there is an overall reduced average speed on the full length of a road with SCs. Humps reduce the mean speed comparable to the reduction from chicanes, but the speed variation is less reduced near chicanes, and especially prior to the arrival to such SC. Due to different traffic patterns around the two types of SCs, a direct comparison between the effects from humps and chicanes cannot be made. A tentative result at least for the two types of SCs studied is that the chicane results in a reduced effect on speed variation compared to the hump. The chicanes result in increased speed variation prior to the arrival to the SC compared to the humps. Hence, the indication is that chicanes might be less safe than humps due to speed variation although more research is needed especially concerning developing of best practice design for speed reducing devices and other speed-calming measures in built-up areas.     

The more you play,the more aggressive you become: A long-term experimental study of cumulative violent video game effects on hostile expectations and aggressive behavior

It is well established that violent video games increase aggression. There is a stronger evidence of short-term violent video game effects than of long-term effects. The present experiment tests the cumulative long-term effects of violent video games on hostile expectations and aggressive behavior over three consecutive days. Participants (N = 70) played violent or nonviolent video games 20 min a day for three consecutive days. After gameplay, participants could blast a confederate with loud unpleasant noise through headphones (the aggression measure). As a potential causal mechanism, we measured hostile expectations. Participants read ambiguous story stems about potential interpersonal conflicts, and listed what they thought the main characters would do or say, think, and feel as the story continued. As expected, aggressive behavior and hostile expectations increased over days for violent game players, but not for nonviolent video game players, and the increase in aggressive behavior was partially due to hostile expectations.     

The impact of Wii Fit intervention on dynamic balance control in children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder and balance problems

The aim of this study was to examine differences in the performance of children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (p-DCD) and balance problems (BP) and typical developing children (TD) on a Wii Fit task and to measure the effect on balance skills after a Wii Fit intervention.Twenty-eight children with BP and 20 TD-children participated in the study. Motor performance was assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC2), three subtests of the Bruininks Oseretsky Test (BOT2): Bilateral Coordination, Balance and Running Speed & Agility, and a Wii Fit ski slalom test. The TD children and half of the children in the BP group were tested before and after a 6 weeks non-intervention period. All children with BP received 6 weeks of Wii Fit intervention (with games other than the ski game) and were tested before and afterwards.Children with BP were less proficient than TD children in playing the Wii Fit ski slalom game. Training with the Wii Fit improved their motor performance. The improvement was significantly larger after intervention than after a period of non-intervention. Therefore the change cannot solely be attributed to spontaneous development or test–retest effect. Nearly all children enjoyed participation during the 6 weeks of intervention. Our study shows that Wii Fit intervention is effective and is potentially a method to support treatment of (dynamic) balance control problems in children.