Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for psychopathology and psychological health

We examined the utility of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) in comparison with original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (o-RST) in further understanding psychopathology and well-being. In line with theory, we found o-BIS to be a non-specific predictor of anxiety and stress whereas r-BIS and r-FFFS scales were predictors of anxiety and stress. Consistent with the joint systems hypothesis, depression was associated with r-BIS, but only when r-BAS was low. The r-BAS, low o-BIS and low r-Freeze were the only predictors of psychological well-being. These findings suggest that r-BAS as we measured it reflects more functional approach behaviour than measures of o-BAS. Further, while o-BIS appears to be associated with broad negative affective states, the parsing of r-BIS from fear potentially provides r-RST with a more refined understanding of psychopathology and reduced well-being.     

Jackson-5 scales of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) and their application to dysfunctional real world outcomes

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) is a neurobiological theory of personality which has many differences compared to the original version. This highlights the need for measurement scales to reflect the revised theory. Study 1 uses exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to develop and test new scales (the ‘Jackson-5’) which are shown to be internally reliable, have scale inter-relationships matching theory, and to have desirable construct validity properties. Study 2 compares r-RST with original RST in the prediction of delinquency and psychopathy in students. Results suggest the new scales capture the main properties of r-RST and indicate that r-RST provides a substantially different explanation of the personality basis of dysfunctional behavior compared to original RST.     

The Role Behavioral of Activation and Inhibition in Explaining Adolescents’ Game Use and Game Engagement Levels

According to Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory, variations in the functioning of two neuropsychological systems, the behavioral approach (BAS) and inhibition (BIS) system, can result in individual differences in personality. Several studies have looked at associations between personality and media use but media research integrating BAS and BIS is scarce. The current cross-sectional survey study (n = 1016) representative for Belgian adolescents investigated associations between BAS and BIS and game use and game engagement in adolescents. Results showed that BAS was positively associated with playing both violent and nonviolent games. BIS was negatively associated with violent game use while it was positively associated with nonviolent games. Also, BAS was positively associated with game engagement. No association was found between BIS and game engagement. Game engagement was shown to mediate the relationship between BAS and playing both violent and nonviolent games. Based on these results, the present study argues that integrating the reinforcement sensitivity theory in media research makes an important contribution to the understanding of the link between personality and game engagement and game use.     

Executive dysfunctions across adulthood: measurement properties and correlates of the DEX self-report questionnaire

Difficulties in executive processes can disturb daily life functioning. Using data obtained from two independent community-dwelling samples (n(1) = 468, n(2) = 669, 18-97 years), we examined the factor structure of the Dysexecutive Functioning Questionnaire (DEX) and explored the frequencies and potential correlates of self-reported executive difficulties. Our results revealed that executive problems are parsimoniously described with one underlying factor. Everyday executive dysfunctions were moderately frequent throughout adulthood. Reports of executive problems were associated with individual difference characteristics including age, subjective health, personality, affect, and cognition. We also found that, although executive functions are known to decline with advancing adult age, younger age groups reported more problems than older groups, an effect that was partially mediated by a negative affect factor. We discuss implications for the validity of the instrument as well as directions for future research on executive functioning difficulties in everyday life.     

The development of executive functioning and theory of mind. A comparison of Chinese and U.S. preschoolers

Preschoolers' theory-of-mind development follows a similar age trajectory across many cultures. To determine whether these similarities are related to similar underlying ontogenetic processes, we examined whether the relation between theory of mind and executive function commonly found among U.S. preschoolers is also present among Chinese preschoolers. Preschoolers from Beijing, China (N= 109), were administered theory-of-mind and executive-functioning tasks, and their performance was compared with that of a previously studied sample of U.S. preschoolers (N= 107). The Chinese preschoolers outperformed their U.S. counterparts on all measures of executive functioning, but were not similarly advanced in theory-of-mind reasoning. Nonetheless, individual differences in executive functioning predicted theory of mind for children in both cultures. Thus, the relation between executive functioning and theory of mind is robust across two disparate cultures. These findings shed light on why executive functioning is important for theory-of-mind development.     

Holding in Mind Conflicting Information: Pretending,Working Memory,and Executive Control

Preschoolers' recall of the true and pretend identities of an object in pretense was examined along with a battery of executive functioning and working memory tasks. We expected that children would retain separate identities, as well as a link between them, after observing episodes of pretense, and that memory for pretense would be related to executive functioning and working memory. Children (aged 37–59 months) recalled the true identity of an object better than its pretend identity. Children's recall of at least one identity was correlated with executive functioning and “dual” working memory tasks, independent of age and verbal ability. Memory for both identities was only correlated with executive functioning. The findings are generally supportive of the claim that children form separate representations of the true and pretend identities of objects. The results extend findings of well-established relations between false belief tasks and executive functioning and working memory.     

The involvement of executive functions in prospective memory performance of adults

The present study examines the relationship between prospective memory performance and executive functioning. The four phases of the prospective memory process—intention formation, intention retention, reinstantiation of the intention, and intention execution—are assumed to require different amounts of executive processing, most of which is demanded in the phases of intention formation and intention execution. At present, though, it is still unclear whether, and to what extent, prefrontal executive systems are involved in different kinds of prospective memory tasks, as some findings suggest that prospective memory might rather rely on nonstrategic processes that are unlikely to depend on prefrontal executive systems. Therefore, this study focuses on the following questions: (1) to what degree does executive functioning predict prospective memory performance in different standard prospective memory tasks and, furthermore, are certain executive measures better predictors than others; (2) are age‐related effects in different prospective memory measures due to individual differences in executive functioning; and (3) do age‐related differences in prospective memory exist that are not explained by individual differences in executive functioning. In a sample of 80 adults (20‐80 years), we applied four instruments to measure prospective memory: a traditional single‐task paradigm, two more complex tasks—one time‐based and one event‐based—and a highly complex multi‐task paradigm. We further assessed a broadly defined construct of executive functioning using several standard neuropsychological tests. Results showed that executive functioning did not predict performance in the simple single‐task paradigm. However, executive functioning, but not age, predicted performance in the two more complex standard tests of prospective remembering, and both executive functioning and age predicted performance in the most complex paradigm. In sum, the obtained data underline the assumption that frontal/ executive functions are related to prospective memory performance across a range of prospective paradigms. It also seems clear that age differences in prospective memory performance partially depend on age‐related individual differences in frontal/executive functions.     

强化敏感性人格理论述评

Gray的强化敏感性理论尝试从人类神经生理机制的角度来解释人格差异。该理论认为,在中枢神经系统内存在一些子系统,分别对奖励和惩罚的刺激信号敏感,并通过强化效应调节人们的行为和动机。目前研究者已开发出强化敏感性的测量方法,并进行了一系列实证研究。但随着研究的深入,该理论的局限逐渐暴露出来。针对这些局限,未来的研究应致力于：（1）用生理指标来验证理论假设;（2）探讨反映强化敏感性的特质;（3）考察认知因素与生物因素的交互作用     

Personality integration: A synthesis of the parts and wholes of individuality theory

Individuality theory views the total psychological system or personality as an organized complexity which is partitioned into six major systems—sensory, motor, cognition, affect, value, and style. Each of these systems is, in turn, describable in terms of its subsystems and their components. Individuality is captured via the concept of multivariate personality type, which includes both profile and temporal characteristics. Organism-environment interactions are handled via the basic system circuit. This circuit involves an information input from the environment, a norm against which inputs are compared, and outputs which feed back into the external environment. Normative match refers to the degree of alignment between a specifiable norm (i.e., a psychological construction such as a goal or a purpose) and the environmental input. We refer to norm-input matches as assimilation. In the case of mismatches, accommodation is required via feedback mechanisms. Whereas normative matching is focused on external interactions between the organism and the environment, template matching is focused on internal processes of the psychological suprasystem. Thus, template matching refers to the degree of alignment between the profile and temporal aspects of a specifiable situation and personality type. Template matching involves specifying the details of central processing—the integrative role of the style and value systems, the transformation processing of the cognitive and affective systems, and the coding role of the sensory and motor systems. Suprasystem functioning involves both internal (i.e., template matching) and external (i.e., normative matching) processing simultaneously. Thus, molar psychological constructions, such as worldview and life-style, are the products or outcomes of the integrative processing of the style-cognitive and value-affective systems respectively. When suprasystem norms are functioning assimilatively we are describing periods of personality stability. When suprasystem norms are functioning accommodatively we are describing periods of personality change. The most encompassing indicator of personality integration at a given moment     

My mother is sensitive,but I am too tired to know: Infant sleep as a moderator of prospective relations between maternal sensitivity and infant outcomes

This study investigated the moderating role of infant sleep in the connections between maternal sensitivity and three indicators of infant functioning: attachment security, theory of mind, and executive functioning (EF). Maternal sensitivity was assessed when infants (27 girls and 36 boys) were 1 year of age. Infant sleep was assessed with actigraphy at age 2; attachment security, theory of mind, and EF were also assessed at age 2. Results indicated that maternal sensitivity was positively related to attachment security only among infants who got more sleep at night, and to conflict-EF and theory of mind only for infants who got greater proportions of their sleep during the night. These results suggest that sleep may enhance the benefits of maternal sensitivity for some aspects of infants’ functioning, providing further support for the importance of sleep maturation as a salient developmental task of infancy.     

Individual differences in anxiety and executive functioning: A multidimensional view

The relationship between individual differences in anxiety and executive functioning was investigated in a sample of young adults. Verbal and spatial working memory, resistance to interference, negative priming, and task‐switching measures were used to assess three executive functioning dimensions: updating, inhibition, and shifting. An additional index of basic psychomotor speed was added to this cognitive battery. According to the multidimensional interaction model of anxiety proposed by Endler (1997), state (cognitive–worry and autonomic–emotional) and trait (related to social evaluation, physical danger, ambiguous situations, and daily routines) anxiety were assessed in this evaluation context. Results indicated that shifting and inhibition (negative priming) efficiency were negatively related to state (cognitive–worry) and trait (related to social evaluation) anxiety. However, there was a relative advantage of subjects higher in social evaluation apprehensions in their memory updating performance. The results are consistent with several predictions of the attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007), and are relevant for research regarding the interaction of situational, personality, and cognitive functioning dimensions.     

Beyond cognitive deficits: how social class shapes social cognition

Lower social class is thought to contribute to poorer executive functioning and working memory. Nevertheless, lower social class individuals consistently outperform their higher-class counterparts on social cognitive tasks that rely on similar underlying cognitive processes (e.g., working memory and executive functioning). Why would lower social class inhibit such processes in one domain, but promote them in another? We argue that features of lower-class communities (e.g., resource scarcity) promote social cognition via cultural processes. We then argue that social cognition involves partially unique task and neural demands that are separate from nonsocial cognition. We conclude that unique task and neural demands, together with the distinctive cognitive proclivities of lower- and higher-class cultures, can explain variable associations between social class and cognitive functioning.     

The relationship between personality, social functioning, and depression: a structural equation modeling analysis

The relationship between personality, social functioning, and depression remains unclear. The present study employs structural equation modeling to examine the mediating role of social functioning between harm avoidance (HA), self-directedness (SD), and depression. A sample of 902 individuals completed a self-report questionnaire consisting of the following scales: HA and SD subscales of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Social Adaptation Self-Evaluation Scale (SASS). Structural equation modeling via analysis of moment structure was used to estimate the fit of nine related models. Results indicated that social functioning is a mediator between harm avoidance or self-directness and depression. Self-directedness was also shown to have direct effects on depression. The results support the social reinforcement theory of depression and provide a theoretical account of how the variables are related based on correlation methods. Suggestions are offered for future experimental and longitudinal research.     

Executive processing in free recall of categorized lists

The present study examines the cognitive processes that operate in free recall of categorized lists by manipulating semantic structure of the lists and using a dual task methodology to restrict the processes that make demands on limited-capacity resources, the central executive resources. Relying on the assumption that, in free recall of categorized lists, the search for category names is a strategic controlled process that demands executive resources, lists with different numbers of categories ranging from 2 to 6 were employed. The results showed an effect of a secondary task on retrieval in the 4- and the 6-category list conditions, but not in the 2-category list condition. In contrast to retrieval, the secondary task interference at encoding produced an effect on recall of all three types of lists. An interesting finding was that an effect on clustering was found only when interference was present at encoding, not when it was at retrieval. This finding was in line with the suggestion (Troyer, Moscovitch, Winocur, Alexander, & Stuss, 1998) that switching (shifting between different category items) rather than clustering is related to executive functioning, and suggested that clustering may be a measure of two different types of processing: (1) executive processing at encoding and (2) automatic processing at retrieval. In addition, a different pattern of results was obtained when low frequency category words were used, indicating that the frequency of category words is an important determinant in free recall of categorized lists. Overall, the present results support the two-process account of retrieval of category words (Rosen & Engle, 1997) and the view that there are fundamental differences between encoding and retrieval processes (Naveh-Benjamin, Craik, Guez, & Dori, 1998; Naveh-Benjamin & Guez, 2000).     

Executive control of visual attention in dual-task situations

A theory of executive control is presented that proposes that executive processes control subordinate processes by manipulating their parameters, reconfiguring them to respond in accord with the current task set. It adopts C. Bundesen's (1990) theory of visual attention (TVA) and R. M. Nosofsky and T. J. Palmeri's (1997) exemplar-based random walk (EBRW) as the theory of subordinate processes. It assumes that a task set is a set of TVA and EBRW parameters sufficient to perform a task and that set switching involves changing those parameters. The theory solves 2 computational problems that emerge in dual-task situations: the binding problem and the serial order problem. It can perform dual tasks in series or in parallel but prefers the serial strategy because it is faster and it solves the binding problem naturally. The theory accounts for concurrence cost, set-switching cost, crosstalk between tasks, and the modulation of crosstalk by task set.     

Executive functioning and prospective memory in young children

The current study examined the role of executive functioning (EF) in children's prospective memory (PM) by assessing the effect of delay and number of intentions to-be-remembered on PM, as well as relations between PM and EF. Ninety-six 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds completed a PM task and two executive function tasks. The PM task required children to interrupt an ongoing card game to perform one action (single intention) or two actions (dual intention) with target cards after a short delay (1 min) or a long delay (5 min). There was no main effect of number of intentions or delay on the PM task. However, performance improved with age, and age and delay interacted such that 4-year-olds’ performance remained the same after a long delay whereas 5-year-olds’ performance improved after a long delay. We suggest that the age by delay interaction is a product of age differences in cognitive monitoring. Working memory but not inhibitory control predicted PM with age controlled. We argue that an executive function framework permits an integrative understanding of many processes involved in young children's prospective memory.     

Emotion dysregulation as a partial mediator between reinforcement sensitivity and posttraumatic stress symptoms

The reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) asserts that three brain subsystems (i.e., the Behavioral Approach System [BAS], the Behavioral Inhibition System [BIS], and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System [FFFS]) underlie individual variations seen in personality and psychopathology. Though revised by Gray and McNaughton (2000), many researchers continue to utilize the original, and now outdated, theory of reinforcement sensitivity. Additionally, while there is an abundance of research investigating the association between reinforcement sensitivity and psychopathology, the underlying mechanisms between these constructs remain largely unknown. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to test whether emotion dysregulation acted as a partial mediator between FFFS sensitivity and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) under the revised RST framework. Data was collected from 282 undergraduate students at a Midwestern university who experienced at least one potentially traumatic event. Bootstrapping was used to test the significance of the indirect effect (e.g., amount of mediation) of FFFS sensitivity on PTSS. The indirect effect was significant (2000 bootstrapped CI_95 = .11−.25), indicating that emotion dysregulation partially mediated the relationship between FFFS sensitivity and PTSS. More specifically, individuals with high FFFS sensitivity reported higher levels of emotion dysregulation, which in turn was associated with greater PTSS scores.     

The architecture of personality

This article presents a theoretical framework for analyzing psychological systems that contribute to the variability, consistency, and cross-situational coherence of personality functioning. In the proposed knowledge-and-appraisal personality architecture (KAPA), personality structures and processes are delineated by combining 2 principles: distinctions (a) between knowledge structures and appraisal processes and (b) among intentional cognitions with varying directions of fit, with the latter distinction differentiating among beliefs, evaluative standards, and aims. Basic principles of knowledge activation and use illuminate relations between knowledge and appraisal, yielding a synthetic account of personality structures and processes. Novel empirical data illustrate the heuristic value of the knowledge/appraisal distinction by showing how self-referent and situational knowledge combine to foster cross-situational coherence in appraisals of self-efficacy.     

Iowa Gambling Task performance and executive function predict low-income urban preadolescents’ risky behaviors

This study examines preadolescents’ reports of risk-taking as predicted by two different, but related inhibitory control systems involving sensitivity to reward and loss on the one hand, and higher order processing in the context of cognitive conflict, known as executive functioning (EF), on the other. Importantly, this study examines these processes with a sample of inner-city, low-income preadolescents and as such examines the ways in which these processes may be related to risky behaviors as a function of children’s levels of both concurrent and chronic exposure to household poverty. As part of a larger longitudinal study, 382 children (ages 9–11) provided a self-report of risky behaviors and participated in the Iowa Gambling Task, assessing bias for infrequent loss (preference for infrequent, high magnitude versus frequent, low magnitude loss) and the Hearts and Flowers task assessing executive functioning. Results demonstrated that a higher bias for infrequent loss was associated with higher risky behaviors for children who demonstrated lower EF. Furthermore, bias for infrequent loss was most strongly associated with higher risk-taking for children facing highest levels of poverty. Implications for early identification and prevention of risk-taking in inner-city preadolescents are discussed.     

Executive dysfunction as a risk marker for substance abuse: The role of impulsive personality traits

The relationships between family history of substance use, executive functions, impaired decision making, and current substance dependence are the focus of this study. Thirty-eight substance-dependent inpatients were compared with 30 community controls on performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Trail-Making Test-B, the Stroop Color Word Test, the Wais-II Digit Span, and the Iowa Gambling Task. Recent alcohol use, depressive symptoms, and impulsivity were also assessed. As hypothesized, individuals with substance dependence exhibited poorer executive functioning. Family history status was modestly related to impaired performance on tests designed to measure the integrity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. In particular, substance-dependent, family history positive individuals performed less well on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test than substance-dependent individuals without a family history. Digit Span performances were worse among family history positive controls when compared with family history negative controls. Impulsive personality traits—specifically, difficulty thinking before acting (Urgency)—were related, as hypothesized, to executive functioning. Results indicate that family history status confers an increased risk of impairment beyond that conferred by recent substance abuse, and that impulsive personality traits are related to performance on tests of executive functions. Implications for criminality are discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.