Sexual Harassment,Racial Harassment,and Well-Being among Asian American Women: An Intersectional Approach

ABSTRACT

Harassment of Asian American (AA) women has received little attention in popular culture and academic research despite their long legacy of sexualized racial stereotyping (e.g., Geisha, sexually submissive; Shimizu, 2007) and additional risk of mistreatment due to their membership in both marginalized gender and racial groups (Beale, 1970 Beale, F. (1970). Double jeopardy: To be Black and female. In T. C. Bambara (Ed.), The Black woman: An anthology (pp. 90–100). New York: New American Library. [Google Scholar]; Settles & Buchanan, 2014 Settles, I. H., & Buchanan, N. T. (2014). Intersectionality: Multiple categories of identity and difference. In V. Benet-Martinez and Y. Hong (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Multicultural Identity (pp. 160–180). New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. [Google Scholar]). This study addresses this dearth of research using an intersectional theoretical framework to comprehensively examine sexual and racial harassment with a sample of AA women. Results validated the underlying factor structure of the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (Fitzgerald, Gelfand, & Drasgow, 1995 Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 425–445. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and the Racial Acts, Crimes, and Experiences Scale (RACES; Bergman & Buchanan, 2008 Bergman, M., & Buchanan, N. T. (2008). Development of the Racial Acts, Crimes, and Experiences Survey (RACES). Unpublished instrument. [Google Scholar]) for AA women. Additionally, our results replicated previous research indicating that participants often reported experiencing behaviors that constitute harassment, but did not label them as such. This supports the use of behavioral measures over items that require individuals to label their experiences as harassment. Finally, we examined the associations between these forms of harassment and two indicators of psychological well-being, depression, and posttraumatic stress (PTS). Our results found that gender harassment was associated with more depression, whereas unwanted sexual attention, sexual coercion, and racial harassment were associated with increased PTS. This supports the utility of including both sexual and racial harassment in providing a more nuanced understanding of AA women’s harassment experiences overall and the relationship of harassment to psychological well-being. We discuss theoretical and clinical implications of these findings.     

Posttraumatic Growth and Sexual Violence: A Literature Review

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) is the positive psychological growth that a person might experience after enduring a traumatic event. PTG is a relatively new area of research identified by researchers because it represents a shift in thinking. Rather than focusing on the negative consequences of trauma, it explores the potential for positive outcomes associated with trauma. Although PTG is well documented across different types of traumas, it is unclear how this kind of growth stems from sexual violence, specifically. This review provides an overview of the literature concerning PTG that is associated with sexual violence. Results across the literature indicate that sexual violence is consistently associated with PTG. However, given the inconsistency in research designs, assessment, and operational definitions used to study PTG, many researchers suggest that it might be difficult to determine how and when PTG occurs. This study provides a literature review of the research on PTG in the aftermath of sexual violence. Important implications for future directions and trauma-based therapy are discussed and include the identification of relevant predictors, the importance of context, and how service providers might benefit from a better understanding of PTG.     

Breast Cancer as Trauma: Posttraumatic Stress and Posttraumatic Growth

Diagnosis and treatment of cancer has been associated with both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and posttraumatic growth (PTG). This cross-sectional study sought to assess the frequency, common predictors, and interrelationships of PTSD symptoms and PTG in breast cancer survivors (n = 65). In this sample, symptoms of PTSD and reports of PTG were common and were not significantly related to one another. Greater social constraints on talking about breast cancer and perception of cancer as a traumatic stressor were associated with greater PTSD symptomatology. Younger age and perception of cancer as a traumatic stressor were associated with greater PTG. Findings suggest the central role of subjective appraisal in adjustment to cancer. Psychosocial interventions should be sensitive to the potential for PTG, both in treatment design and in assessment of outcomes.     

Psychological Adjustment,Coping, and Emotion Regulation as Predictors of Posttraumatic Growth

Abstract

The present study examined factors contributing to reported benefits of traumatic experiences or posttraumatic growth (PTG) in a college sample. Specifically, we examined dimensions typically associated with trauma recovery (i.e., psychological functioning, coping, emotion regulation) and features of the trauma (i.e., number and recency of traumatic events, average, and maximal distress). Participants (N= 193) completed standardized questionnaires measuring these constructs. Results indicated that active coping and subjective well-being independently contributed to PTG, but social desirability and symptom distress were independent of growth. These results were consistent with study expectations. Although not specifically predicted, maximal trauma distress also uniquely predicted PTG. Contrary to expectations, effective emotion regulation did not contribute to PTG.     

Effects of Type of Coping Response,Setting, and Social Context on Reactions to Sexual Harassment

Male and female undergraduates from a multicultural university (MU) and an historically Black University (HBU) read a scenario in which a student was sexually harassed either by a professor or a workplace supervisor. The student victim's coping response was also varied. Participants rated the victim's behavior as most effective and appropriate when she confronted the harasser directly or reported the harasser's behavior. HBU students judged the harasser as not guilty significantly more often than MU students, but believed that the harasser was less trustworthy than multicultural students did. Women responded significantly more negatively to the blatant sexual harassment scenario than men did. Implications for prevention and interventions are discussed.     

An Examination of Disclosure,Mental Health Treatment use,and Posttraumatic Growth Among College Women Who Experienced Sexual Victimization

Few investigations have sought to identify factors associated with posttraumatic growth among survivors of sexual victimization. The present study examined the relationship between posttraumatic growth, disclosure, and mental health treatment use following sexual assault. Undergraduate female psychology students (N = 85), who reported a prior history of sexual victimization, completed measures assessing trauma exposure, posttraumatic growth, disclosure, and mental health treatment use. Results revealed that degree of disclosure of the assault to support sources and mental health treatment use following sexual assault was related to increased posttraumatic growth. Findings have valuable implications for treatment interventions for survivors of sexual trauma.     

Cross-Cultural Reactions to Academic Sexual Harassment: Effects of Individualist vs. Collectivist Culture and Gender of Participants

Male and female university students from the United States, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Ecuador, Pakistan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Turkey read a standardized scenario in which a male professor was accused of sexually harassing a female graduate student. Respondents from individualist countries judged the professor to be guilty of sexual harassment more often than did those from collectivist countries. Women rendered significantly more guilty judgments and assigned more severe punishments to the accused professor than did men. Implications for the individualist–collectivist classification system and cross-cultural research are discussed.     

The Effects of Delayed Report and Motive for Reporting on Perceptions of Sexual Harassment

We examined whether the timing of the report and the victim's apparent motive for reporting influences women's and men's perceptions of sexual harassment. Undergraduates (153 women, 149 men) listened to 1 of 6 versions of audiotaped testimony of the victim and defendant. The report was filed either immediately or 18 months later, and motive either was presented as altruistic, retaliatory, or was not specified. Participants chose a verdict, rated the defendant's guilt, and rated the defendant and victim on several dimensions. Higher guilt ratings, more positive evaluations of the victim, and more negative evaluations of the defendant were associated with immediate reporting and an altruistic motive, although women weighed these factors more heavily than did men.     

Sexual Harassment of Adolescents Perpetrated by Teachers and by Peers: An Exploration of the Dynamics of Power, Culture, and Gender in Secondary Schools

The purpose of this study was to explore and compare the similarities and disparities between sexual harassment of students that is perpetrated by teachers and by peers. The study involved 2,808 randomly selected adolescents at 22 secondary schools from two regions in the Netherlands. The sample comprised 14- and 15-year-old students (55% girls and 45% boys). The majority of the students' parents were born in the Netherlands (86%); 14% were born outside the Netherlands (Morocco, Turkey, and Surinam). The data revealed important differences between peer sexual harassment and sexual harassment perpetrated by teachers. Unwanted sexual behavior by peers is a cultural phenomenon that occurs in public areas. The relatively low incidence of unwanted sexual behavior (18%), however, does not fully reflect the Culture Model. Sexual harassment by teachers is a particularly detrimental experience for adolescents, and health-related problems are therefore reported in higher numbers. Contrary to the assumptions of the Power Model, sexual harassment perpetrated by teachers is not incidental (27%) and does not only occur in secluded places.     

Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Trajectories in Child Sexual Abuse Victims: An Analysis of Sex Differences Using the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being

Very few studies have prospectively examined sex differences in posttraumatic stress symptoms and symptom trajectories in youth victimized by childhood sexual abuse. This study addresses that question in a relatively large sample of children, drawn from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, who were between the ages of 8–16 years and who were reported to Child Protective Services for alleged sexual abuse. Sex differences were examined using t tests, logistic regression, and latent trajectory modeling. Results revealed that there were not sex differences in victims’ posttraumatic stress symptoms or trajectories. Whereas caseworkers substantiated girls’ abuse at higher rates than boys’ abuse and rated girls significantly higher than boys on level of harm, there were not sex differences in three more objective measures of abuse severity characteristics. Overall, higher caseworker ratings of harm predicted higher initial posttraumatic stress symptom levels, and substantiation status predicted shallower decreases in trauma symptoms over time. Implications for theory and intervention are discussed.     

The Impact of Childhood Physical Abuse and Age of Sexual Initiation on Women's Maladaptive Posttraumatic Cognitions

Child abuse survivors often exhibit long-standing maladaptive beliefs. Sexual risk-taking could contribute to the maintenance of such beliefs by reinforcing cognitions that originally resulted from child abuse. In this study, 64 community women, most with elevated posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, completed measures of childhood abuse, sexual risk-taking, and posttraumatic cognitions. Age of first consensual sexual intercourse mediated the relationship between childhood physical abuse and maladaptive posttraumatic cognitions in adulthood. Thus, age of sexual intercourse initiation might play an important role in women's recovery from childhood physical abuse. Clinicians should consider the possible impact of women's sexual history when challenging their cognitions during trauma-based cognitive behavioral therapy. Further, decreasing risky sexual behavior might partially protect against the negative effects of trauma.     

Contrast and Rater-Perspective Effects on Judgments of Sexual Harassment Severity: What He Thinks She Thinks,and Vice Versa

We looked at whether ratings biases can influence judgments people make about sexually harassing behaviors. Online participants (N = 176) read and rated the severity of complaint scenarios describing different incidents of alleged harassment. We manipulated: (1) contrast effects, by having people judge other, independent scenarios before judging a target scenario, and (2) rater-perspective effects, by having people judge from both a self- and then an opposite-gender perspective. For the former, we hypothesized that if judgments about harassment are qualitatively similar to judgments made in other areas (e.g., performance appraisal), they too should show contrast effects. For the latter, we hypothesized people would use stereotypes about the other gender, thereby overestimating the true (i.e., self-perspective driven) gender difference. Results supported both hypotheses, suggesting that decision makers should be aware of the possible influence of biases when judging whether behaviors constitute harassment.     

The Prevalence of Coping Behaviour,Posttraumatic Growth and Psychological Well-Being in Women who Experienced Childhood Sexual Abuse

This study investigated the prevalence of coping behaviour, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being in adult South African women (n=60, mean age=32, ethnicity=70% European, 28% African and 2% Asian descent). Specifically, the study considered the prevalence of constructive coping, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being with a history of childhood sexual abuse. All participants self-reported being sexually abused before the age of 18 years. They completed measures of coping, posttraumatic growth, and psychological well-being, in a cross-sectional survey design. Results showed moderate to high correlations among scales indicating conceptual coherence as indicators of constructive coping, posttraumatic growth and psychological wellness. About 58% of participants manifested constructive coping, 60% manifested posttraumatic growth, and 42% manifested psychological well-being. These women survivors of childhood sexual abuse had higher levels of posttraumatic growth than reported in previous studies.     

Disablism,Identity and Self: Discrimination as a Traumatic Assault on Subjectivity

The international disability movement has favoured a political strategy which relies on historical materialism, eschewing subjective aspects of disability. From this perspective, rehabilitationist and psychological constructions of the subjectivities of disabled people are rejected as victim‐blaming pathologisation. Recently, feminist work has begun to explore psychological aspects of the lives of disabled people, within various paradigms. Drawing loosely on ideas from psychoanalysis, this paper explores the impressions left on subjectivity by symbolic assaults often associated with the disabled identity, thus connecting intra‐psychic and socio‐political arenas. The conceptual ideas employed emerged from psychoanalytically oriented group psychotherapy with severely physically impaired adults performed by the first author. The authors argue that the ongoing nature of socially engendered trauma suffered by disabled persons perpetuates marginality, through internalization of self‐punitive psychological defences, which corrode the entitlement necessary for an assertive political movement. Surviving in a world which continually questions one's belonging, leaves little personal resources for debunking oppressive social phenomena. Material as well as discursive changes are essential if internal narratives are to be reclaimed, overcoming the subjective imprints of ongoing social trauma. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Posttraumatic Growth in Individuals With Chronic Illness: The Role of Social Support and Meaning Making

This study aimed to assess the predictive nature of social support, meaning making (presence of meaning and search for meaning), and demographic factors on perceived posttraumatic growth (PTG) in a sample of adults living with chronic illness (N = 110). Regression analyses indicated that presence of meaning and gender served as the strongest predictors, together accounting for 22% of the variance in PTG. Presence of meaning also moderated the relationship between social support and PTG, supporting the unique contribution of meaning making on PTG.     

Posttraumatic symptoms and growth of Kosovar war refugees: The influence of hope and cognitive coping

Research on war trauma has been dominated by a pathological focus for decades. Researchers have now counterbalanced studies of trauma with a new focus, positive changes following crisis. This prospective study examines how specific psychological factors might influence post-war adaptive outcomes (the coexistence of posttraumatic growth [PTG] and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] symptoms) in a sample of 50 Kosovar war refugees. Individual differences in positive attitude and coping strategies were explored. Hope assessed during resettlement, and cognitive coping strategies, employed between resettlement and follow-up, were associated with PTG, controlling for war-related trauma and baseline symptoms. PTG and symptoms were unrelated. No predictors for present symptoms were identified. Future mental health practice with refugees should address both positive and negative aspects.     

PTSD and the influence of context: The self as a social mirror

The principal accepted models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are based on both memory processing and biological/brain changes occurring when one's life or well-being is threatened. It is our thesis that these models would be greatly informed by community studies indicating that PTSD is predicted to a greater extent by earlier life experience and experiences that occur distant from the threatening event. These findings suggest posttraumatic responding is best conceptualized through the lens of the self-in-context, as opposed to imprinting that results from a given event at a given time. Moreover, studies of non-Western populations often do not express trauma as PTSD, or at least not primarily as PTSD, which argues against specific neural or memory encoding processes, but rather for a more plastic neural process that is shaped by experience and how the self develops in its cultural context, as a product of a broad array of experiences. We posit that fear and emotional conditioning as well as the ways traumas are encoded in memory are only partial explanatory mechanisms for trauma responding, and that issues of safety and harm, which are long term and developmental, are the common and principal underpinnings of the occurrence of posttraumatic distress, including PTSD.     

Posttraumatic growth in survivors of a natural disaster: the role of social axioms of religiosity,reward for application,and social cynicism

The positive psychology movement has impelled trauma research to focus not only on debilitating aspects of trauma experiences, but also on its positive outcomes such as posttraumatic growth (PTG). We investigated how the social themes of religiosity, reward for application, and social cynicism, as part of the individual’s distal culture, contribute to PTG among natural disaster survivors. We tested a model wherein social axioms of religiosity, reward for application, and social cynicism predict PTG, and their relationships are mediated by adaptive cognitive processing of trauma. The model was tested in a sample of Filipino survivors of typhoon Haiyan using structural equation modeling. The results support the proposed model except for the influence of social cynicism. The findings suggest that generalized beliefs about the social world play an important role in the development of PTG, and must be considered to understand how growth occurs in the aftermath of a traumatic event.