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1.
Larry L. Jacoby Christopher N. Wahlheim Matthew G. Rhodes Karen A. Daniels Chad S. Rogers 《Memory & cognition》2010,38(6):820-829
Results from two experiments revealed that prior experience with proactive interference (PI) diminished PI’s effects for both
young and older adults. Participants were given two rounds of experience, with different materials, in a situation that produced
PI. Comparisons with a control condition showed that the effects of PI on accuracy and on high-confidence intrusion errors
(false memory) were reduced on the second round, as compared with those on the first. Also, the ability of confidence to diagnose
accuracy of responding improved across rounds. Effects of prior experience with PI depended on feedback given at the time
of test (Experiment 1). At least in part, the diminishment of PI resulted from participants’ allocating more attention to
interference items during study in the second round than in the first (Experiment 2). Implications of the results for interpreting
age differences in PI and false memory are discussed. 相似文献
2.
Research regarding how people monitor their learning has shown that ease of processing strongly guides people’s judgments
of learning (JOLs). However, the desirable difficulties concept (Bjork, 1994) suggests that studying information that is less fluent can result in greater learning. Currently, it is unclear whether
people are aware of the potential benefits of desirable difficulties during learning. To address this, in Experiment 1, participants studied inverted and upright words and also made JOLs. While participants’ JOLs did not differ for inverted
and upright words, recall was greater for inverted words. Experiment 2 used several study–test cycles in which participants could potentially learn about the beneficial effects of processing inverted
words with task experience, and similar results were obtained. Thus, reading inverted words requires processing that enhances
recall, but memory predictions do not differentiate between upright and inverted words. We interpret these results in terms
of processing fluency, desirable difficulties, and theories of metacognitive monitoring. 相似文献
3.
In the contextual cueing paradigm, Endo and Takeda (in Percept Psychophys 66:293–302, 2004) provided evidence that implicit learning involves selection of the aspect of a structure that is most useful to one’s task.
The present study attempted to replicate this finding in artificial grammar learning to investigate whether or not implicit
learning commonly involves such a selection. Participants in Experiment 1 were presented with an induction task that could
be facilitated by several characteristics of the exemplars. For some participants, those characteristics included a perfectly
predictive feature. The results suggested that the aspect of the structure that was most useful to the induction task was
selected and learned implicitly. Experiment 2 provided evidence that, although salience affected participants’ awareness of
the perfectly predictive feature, selection for implicit learning was mainly based on usefulness. 相似文献
4.
When choosing between options, people often distort new information in a direction that favors their developing preference.
Such information distortion is widespread and robust, but less is known about the magnitude of its effects. In particular,
research has not quantified the effects of distortion relative to the values of the choice options. In two experiments, we
manipulated participants’ initial preferences in choices between risky three-outcome monetary gambles (win, lose, or neither)
by varying the order of five information items (e.g., amount to win, chance of losing). In Experiment 1 (N = 397), the effect of initial information on gambles’ certainty equivalents (subjective values) was mediated by the distortion
of later information. The indirect effect on the difference between gambles’ certainty equivalents averaged 27% of the gambles’
mean expected value. In Experiment 2 (N = 791), we increased the difference between gambles on a later information item to overcome the effect of initial information
on participants’ choices. The required change averaged 31% of the gambles’ mean expected value. We conclude that the effects
of information distortion can be substantial. 相似文献
5.
In real-world situations, people are often faced with the complex task of deciding which of many potential variables are affecting
their own or others’ behavior, as well as noting which specific aspects of behavior are being affected. Although it is common
for professionals who encounter such conditions to claim that they acquire accurate and specific knowledge from their experience,
it is unclear that such confidence is justified. Using a managerial task, we examined participants’ ability to learn how various
interventions affect various aspects of their employees’ performance. The results of three experiments reveal that although
participants appear to avoid prescribing an intervention that has a positive effect on a primary performance measure and a
negative side effect on a secondary measure, when asked directly about the impact of the intervention, they respond by reducing their judgments
of its positive impact. This was true regardless of whether participants indicated clear knowledge of its negative side effect
(Experiment 3) or did not (Experiments 1 and 2). Thus, participants appear to be automatically integrating across the effects on different outcome measures. 相似文献
6.
In this study we assessed the potential moderating roles of stimulus type (emotionally arousing) and participants’ characteristics
(gender) in older adults’ associative memory deficit. In two experiments, young and older participants studied lists that
included neutral and emotionally arousing word pairs (positive and negative) and completed recognition tests for the words
and their associations. In Experiment 1, the majority of the word pairs were composed of two nouns, whereas in Experiment 2 they were composed of adjective–noun pairs. The results extend evidence for older adults’ associative deficit and suggest
that older and younger adults’ item memory is improved for emotionally arousing words. However, associative memory for the
word pairs did not benefit (and even showed a slight decline) from emotionally arousing words, which was the case for both
younger and older adults. In addition, in these experiments, gender appeared to moderate the associative deficit of older
adults, with older males but not females demonstrating this deficit. 相似文献
7.
Experimental research in cognitive arithmetic frequently relies on participants’ self-reports to discriminate solutions based
on direct memory retrieval from use of procedural strategies. Given concerns about the validity and reliability of strategy
reports, Thevenot et al. in Mem Cogn 35:1344–1352, (2007) developed the operand-recognition paradigm as an objective measure of arithmetic strategies. Participants performed addition
or number comparison on two sequentially presented operands followed by a speeded operand-recognition task. Recognition times
increased with problem size following addition but not comparison. Thevenot et al. argued that the complexity of addition
strategies increases with problem size. A corresponding increase in operand-recognition time occurs because, as problem size
increases, working memory contains more numerical distracters. However, because addition is substantially more difficult than
comparison, and difficulty increases with problem size for addition but not comparison, their findings could be due to difficulty-related
task-switching costs. We repeated Thevenot et al. (Experiment 1) but added a control condition wherein participants performed
a parity (odd or even) task instead of operand recognition. We replicated their findings for operand recognition but found
robust, albeit smaller, effects of addition problem size on parity judgements. The results indicate that effects of strategy
complexity in the operand-recognition paradigm are confounded with task-switching effects, which complicates its application
as a precise measure of strategy complexity in arithmetic. 相似文献
8.
Previous accounts of the memory distortion known as the change-of-standard effect hypothesize that participants form a relative impression of a target at encoding and later use that impression with the average
of all items to recall the target (Higgins & Lurie, 1983). In three experiments, we investigated the standard and the integration
of the standard with the relative impression. Experiments 1 and 2 show that participants’ subjective average at recall is
distorted toward recent stimuli: It is computed when required and is therefore affected by the items’ accessibility at that
time. Furthermore, the impression’s influence on recall is relatively small when the context changes between encoding and
decoding. Experiment 3 shows that this change in the impression’s influence occurs only when the participant integrates information
across sessions, suggesting that such tasks make participants aware of the changed context and cause them to adjust the use
of their impression in recalling the target. 相似文献
9.
Two experiments dissociated the roles of intrinsic orientation of a shape and participants’ study viewpoint in shape recognition.
In Experiment 1, participants learned shapes with a rectangular background that was oriented differently from their viewpoint,
and then recognized target shapes, which were created by splitting study shapes along different intrinsic axes, at different
views. Results showed that recognition was quicker when the study shapes were split along the axis parallel to the orientation
of the rectangular background than when they were split along the axis parallel to participants’ viewpoint. In Experiment
2, participants learned shapes without the rectangular background. The results showed that recognition was quicker when the
study shape was split along the axis parallel to participants’ viewpoint. In both experiments, recognition was quicker at
the study view than at a novel view. An intrinsic model of object representation and recognition was proposed to explain these
findings. 相似文献
10.
Pynte J 《Journal of psycholinguistic research》2006,35(3):245-265
The role of prosodic phrasing in sentence comprehension was investigated by means of three different tasks, namely auditory word monitoring (Experiment 1), self-paced reading (Experiment 2) and cross-modal comparison (Experiment 3). In all three experiments a critical prosodic unit or frame comprising a determiner, a noun and a Prepositional Phrase (PP) was preceded or surrounded by two context prosodic units (frames) whose length was varied. The participants’ tendency to interpret the critical sequence as forming a single syntactic constituent (noun–complement interpretation of the PP) as opposed to two distinct syntactic constituents (verb–complement interpretation of the PP) was found to depend on the relative length of the critical and context prosodic units (frames). As a whole these results are consistent with the notion that phrasing effects occur in a retroactive way, after part of the utterance has been processed. 相似文献
11.
Working-memory capacity, proactive interference, and divided attention: limits on long-term memory retrieval 总被引:12,自引:0,他引:12
Kane MJ Engle RW 《Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition》2000,26(2):336-358
Two experiments examined how individual differences in working-memory capacity (WM) relate to proactive interference (PI) susceptibility. We tested high and low WM-span participants in a PI-buildup task under single-task or dual-task ("load") conditions. In Experiment 1, a finger-tapping task was imposed during encoding and retrieval of each list; in Experiment 2, tapping was required during encoding or retrieval. In both experiments, low spans showed greater PI than did high spans under no load, but groups showed equivalent PI under divided attention. Load increased PI only for high spans, suggesting they use attention at encoding and retrieval to combat PI. In Experiment 2, only low spans showed a dual-task cost on List 1 memory, before PI built up. Results indicate a role for attentional processing, perhaps inhibitory in nature, at encoding and retrieval, and are discussed with respect to theories of WM and prefrontal cortex function. 相似文献
12.
13.
Priming insight in groups: Facilitating and inhibiting solving an ambiguously worded insight problem
We extend research on the priming of insight by studying group problem solving. Groups of 2–4 participants tried to solve
an ambiguously worded problem in the presence of a prime that reinforced the dominant but incorrect interpretation of the
problem, a prime that reinforced the uncommon but correct interpretation, or no prime. The paradigm involved participants
asking questions of the experimenter that could only be answered “yes” or “no.” In Experiment 1, the prime was present throughout
the solving period; in Experiment 2, it was removed prior to the solving period. In both experiments, the primes had their
predicted effects. Patterns in the time taken to solve the problem supported the idea that groups stuck at the impasse were
more or less able to restructure the problem, depending on the environmental context. Data from the questions asked and questionnaires
converged with time taken to solve the problem, consistent with the view that restructuring a problem is an automatic process
that produces insight. A comparison of the group data in Experiment 1 with individually tested participants’ data revealed
that the insight of the groups benefited from their being able to recognize lines of questions to follow, to listen to answers
to questions asked, and to evaluate and reject errors or assumptions. 相似文献
14.
Interference is a major source of short-term errors of memory. The present investigation explores the relationship between
two important forms of interference: proactive interference (PI), induced by the need to reject recently studied items no
longer relevant to task performance, and semantic interference (SI), induced by the need to reject lures sharing a meaningful
relationship with current memoranda. We explore the possibility that shared cognitive control processes are recruited to resolve
both forms of interference. In Experiment 1, we find that the requirement to engage in articulatory suppression during the retention interval of tasks that induce either
PI or SI increases both forms of interference similarly and selectively. In Experiment 2, we develop a task to examine PI and SI within the same experimental context. The results show interactive effects between
factors that lead to the two forms of interference. Taken together, these findings support contextual-cuing models of short-term
remembering (Nairne, Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 53–81 2002), where the context in which retrieval occurs can influence susceptibility to interference. Lastly, we discuss several theoretical
hypotheses concerning the cognitive control processes that are recruited to resolve SI and PI in short-term remembering. 相似文献
15.
In four experiments with 332 participants, participants were asked to generate novel nonwords for English categories. When participants were shown examples embedded with regular orthographic structures, participants’ nonwords tended to conform orthographically to the examples, despite instructions to avoid using features of the examples. The effect was found with immediate testing (Experiment 1) and delayed testing (Experiment 2). The effect was also found with arbitrary features (Experiments 1–4), as well as with naturally occurring orthographic regularities (Experiment 4). Participants had difficulty avoiding the use of this prior knowledge, despite being able to list the features they were asked to avoid (Experiment 3). The results are discussed in terms of the inadvertent use of prior knowledge in generative cognitive tasks. 相似文献
16.
17.
When people judge their learning of items across study–test trials, their accuracy in discriminating between learned and unlearned
items improves on the second trial. We examined the source of this improvement by estimating the contribution of three factors—memory
for past test performance (MPT), new learning, and forgetting—to accuracy on trial 2. In Experiment 1, during an initial trial,
participants studied paired associates, made a judgment of learning (JOL) for each one, and were tested. During the second
trial, we manipulated two variables: when the JOL was made (either immediately before or after studying an item) and whether
participants were told the outcome of the initial recall attempt on trial 1. In Experiment 2, the same procedure was used
with a 1-week retention interval between study and test on trial 2. In both experiments, JOL resolution was higher on trial
2 than on trial 1. Fine-grained analyses of JOL magnitude and decomposition of resolution supported several conclusions. First,
MPT contributed the most to boosts in JOL magnitude and improvements in resolution across trials. Second, JOLs and subsequent
resolution were sensitive to new learning and forgetting, but only when participants’ judgments were made after study. Thus,
JOLs appear to integrate information from multiple factors, and these factors jointly contribute to JOL resolution. 相似文献
18.
Some research on attentional control in working memory has emphasized theoretical capacity differences. However, strategic
behavior, which has been relatively unexplored, can also influence attentional control and its relationship to cognitive performance.
In two experiments, we examined the relationship between attentional control (measured with operation span) and interference
in a part-list cuing paradigm. Paradoxically, the results indicated that superior attentional control was related to increased
interference. This relationship reflected the participants’ use of more complex encoding strategies, rather than superior
interference control at retrieval, and was eliminated following brief encoding strategy training. The results suggest that
complex span measures sometimes predict individual differences in task strategies related to interference control and that
these strategies may be amenable to training. The implications for working memory research and the roles of strategies in
basic memory and attention paradigms are briefly discussed. 相似文献
19.
Four studies apply self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) in investigating motivation for computer game play,
and the effects of game play on well-being. Studies 1–3 examine individuals playing 1, 2 and 4 games, respectively and show
that perceived in-game autonomy and competence are associated with game enjoyment, preferences, and changes in well-being
pre- to post-play. Competence and autonomy perceptions are also related to the intuitive nature of game controls, and the
sense of presence or immersion in participants’ game play experiences. Study 4 surveys an on-line community with experience
in multi-player games. Results show that SDT’s theorized needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness independently predict
enjoyment and future game play. The SDT model is also compared with Yee’s (2005) motivation taxonomy of game play motivations.
Results are discussed in terms of the relatively unexplored landscape of human motivation within virtual worlds. 相似文献
20.
支持性条件对记忆年龄差异的影响 总被引:6,自引:0,他引:6
通过三个实验探讨支持性条件对记忆年龄差异的影响。结果表明,在操作条件下记忆高语义关联度项目时,有缩小记忆年龄差异的作用,(实验一);线索回忆时,对于低语义关联度项目,青年人可从名词线索中获得更多支持(实验二);当使用具范畴组织关系的词表作为记忆材料时,操作条件和范畴线索的结合对老年人记忆有干扰作用(实验三)。记忆中年龄差异的变化反映了编码条件、记忆材料和提取条件三方面的综合作用。 相似文献