Incremental validity of the Ego Impairment Index: it's fine when it's there

The results published by W. Perry (2001) demonstrate that with a different criterion more incremental validity can be achieved with the Ego Impairment Index than R. M. Dawes (1999) found using the criterion available to him. Attempting to find statistical rationale for various Rorschach characteristics is, indeed, desirable, especially as a basis for the statistical use of the test. The degree of predictability indicated by most of these statistics, however, still presents a sizable gap between well established validity and much practice, particularly in legal settings. Further, both W. Perry (2001) and D. J. Viglione and M. J. Hilsonroth (2001) raise the issue of evaluating incremental validity in a context where there is some degree of multicolinearity and nesting. The logical equivalence of a nested with a non-nested analysis is established algebraically, and it is noted that the standard concerns about multicolinearity involve the estimations of the coefficients of predictive models--not the degree of predictability per se.     

The Ego Impairment Index and schizophrenia: a validation study.

This study is an extension of our work on a new scale, the Ego Impairment Index (EII; Perry & Viglione, 1991). The index is theoretically based on Beres's (1956) model of ego assessment and was empirically developed on a sample of melancholic, depressed outpatients, diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed. [DSM-III]; American Psychiatric Association, 1980). The EII is derived from the Rorschach Inkblot Test and offers a single composite score of ego impairment. This study validates the use of the EII with a heterogeneous sample of schizophrenic patients. In support of the trait-like characteristics of the scale, the EII continues to be expressed as a single factor, with a correlation of .98 when comparing the original factor derived from a melancholic population with this sample of schizophrenic patients. Significant correlations were also found between the EII and other clinical indices, including the Magical Ideation Scale, the Schizophrenia Index, and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Finally, the EII was found to differentiate between a paranoid subgroup and a mixed undifferentiated/disorganized subgroup who theoretically have more ego impairment. These results offer support for the use of the EII as an empirical means of quantitatively and qualitatively assessing thought disorder within a theoretical framework. Further research is needed to understand the application of the EII across different diagnostic groups and its relationship to other indices of psychological disturbance.     

The use of the Ego Impairment Index across the schizophrenia spectrum

The goal of this study was to assess perceptual and thought disturbance, as indexed by the Ego Impairment Index (EII; Perry & Viglione, 1991), a Rorschach-derived measure, across the schizophrenia spectrum. We hypothesized that there would be an increase in EII scores (indicating increased disturbance) across the spectrum from nonpatients to severely disturbed, hospitalized schizophrenia patients. Normal comparison participants (n = 66), students with elevated scores on either the Perceptual Aberration/Magical Ideation or the Physical Anhedonia Scales (n = 24), first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients (n = 36), participants diagnosed with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) schizotypal personality disorder (n = 36), outpatient schizophrenia participants (n = 33), and hospitalized schizophrenia patients (n = 56) were studied. As hypothesized, we found increased EII scores in all of the schizophrenia spectrum groups when compared against normal comparison participants. Furthermore, the EII was significantly different between the schizophrenia patients and the other schizophrenia spectrum groups. These findings support the use of the EII as a sensitive measure of perceptual and thought disturbance across the schizophrenia spectrum that yields specific information regarding the type of thinking problems that occur within schizophrenia spectrum subgroups.     

A five-year follow-up on the temporal stability of the Ego Impairment Index

This study investigated the temporal stability of the Ego Impairment Index (EII) over a 5-year period. The EII is based on the Comprehensive System (Exner, 1993) and has shown promise as a measure of internal disturbance and psychopathology (Perry & Braff, 1994; Perry & Viglione, 1991; Perry, Viglione, & Braff, 1992). This study successfully recalled 17 subjects from an original sample of 46 who initially suffered from Major Depression, Melancholic-Type 5 years earlier and were treated with antidepressant medication. These subjects did not differ significantly from those Subjects who were not successfully recalled. The Rorschach and a variety of other measures were administered to the subjects. The results revealed impressive temporal consistency over 5 years: a rank-order, test-retest correlation of .68. The EII was also correlated with some of the measures of overall adaptation. These results are consistent with the notion that the EII is a stable trait-measure of psychopathology. Limitations because of the small subgroup of subjects, although not unusual in longitudinal research, are noted.     

The Rorschach Ego Impairment Index: prediction of treatment outcome in a child psychiatric population

In this study, we investigated the treatment utility of the revision of Perry and Viglione's (1991) Rorschach Ego Impairment Index (EII-2) in a sample of 53 child psychiatric inpatients. Parent ratings of symptomatic functioning on the Devereux Scales of Mental Disorders (DSMD; Naglieri, LeBuffe, & Pfeiffer, 1994) were obtained at admission, 30 days postdischarge, and 120 days postdischarge. EII-2 scores correlated with initial symptom elevations on the Critical Pathology at admission. EII-2 scores did not predict short-term response to treatment. However, EII-2 scores demonstrated moderate correlations with long-term outcome and relapse. EII-2 was related to prediction of worsening of symptoms between 30-day and 120-day follow-up as measured by Reliable Change Index scores that were computed for the Externalizing, Internalizing, Critical Pathology, and Total DSMD scales.     

Refinements in the Rorschach Ego Impairment Index incorporating the human representational variable

The Ego Impairment Index (EII; Perry & Viglione, 1991) is a composite measure of psychological impairment and thought disturbance developed from the empirical and theoretical literature on the Rorschach. In this article, we summarize reliability and validity data regarding the EII. Our major goal was to present the rationale and empirical basis for recent refinements in the EII. Among the subcomponents of the original EII was the Human Experience variable (HEV), which has recently been revised and replaced with the Human Representational variable (HRV; Viglione, Perry, Jansak, Meyer, & Exner, 2003). In this study, we replaced the HEV with the HRV to create the EII-2. This was accomplished by recalculating the factor coefficients with a sample of 363 Rorschach protocols. We present additional validity data for the new EII-2. Research recommendations and interpretive guidelines are also presented.     

Incremental validity of the Rorschach Prognostic Rating Scale over the MMPI Ego Strength Scale and IQ

A recent meta-analysis found that the Rorschach Prognostic Rating Scale (RPRS) had a strong ability to predict subsequent outcome (r = .44, N = 783; Meyer & Handler, 1997, this issue). However, that review did not directly address questions of incremental validity. This article focuses on the ability of the RPRS to predict outcome after taking into account other sources of data. Across studies that examined both the RPRS and the MMPI Ego Strength scale, the RPRS had a strong ability to predict outcome (r = .40, N = 187), whereas the MMPI scale did not (r = .02, N = 280). Nine studies examined the RPRS along with an intelligence test and allowed direct numerical estimates of incremental validity to be calculated. Across studies, the RPRS demonstrated strong incremental validity after controlling for intelligence (incremental r = .36, N = 358). It is clear that the Rorschach can make unique contributions to understanding clinically relevant processes in ways that self-reports or measured intelligence cannot. Contemporary Rorschach scales should continue to be evaluated for their distinctive and incremental contribution to clinical practice.     

Let's call the whole thing off: a response to Dawes (2001)

There has been a recent controversy regarding the validity of the Rorschach test. This comment is in response to criticism levied by R. M. Dawes (2001) on the incremental validity of the Ego Impairment Index (EII), a Rorschach-derived measure of cognition, perception, and reasoning. The Dawes articles (1999 and 2001) serve as an example of the recent practice of placing extraordinary challenges on the Rorschach test. Dawes's arguments are examined and parallel examples are provided that demonstrate the bias used to judge the validity of the EII, the Rorschach, and psychological assessment. Still, in the face of criticism, the results (see Dawes, 2001) support the incremental validity of the EII. Thus, the conclusion presented in this Comment is that it is time for us to "call the whole thing off" and end the Rorschach controversy that has occupied so much recent attention and generated so few new ideas.     

Weighing evidence for the Rorschach's validity: a response to Wood et al. (1999)

Wood, Nezworski, Stejskal, Garven, and West (1999) challenged Ganellen's (1996) characterization of the revised Rorschach Depression Index (DEPI; Exner, 1991) as a promising psychometric marker of depression that deserves serious attention by researchers and clinicians. To the contrary, however, a careful examination of existing studies indicates that no compelling empirical evidence exists indicating that Ganellen's conclusions should be modified at the present time, although no firm conclusions about the DEPI can be reached until further evidence accumulates. Furthermore, although Wood et al. (1999) suggested that evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the Rorschach in general is weak, ample evidence exists demonstrating that the Rorschach can be scored reliably (Meyer, 1997), that Rorschach variables in general have respectable levels of criterion-related validity (Bornstein, 1996; Hiller, Rosenthal, Bornstein, Berry, & Brunnel-Neuleib, 1999), and that the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) and Rorschach have comparable levels of criterion-related validity, with the MMPI outperforming the Rorschach in certain respects and the Rorschach outperforming the MMPI in others (Bornstein, 1999; Hiller et al, 1999).     

Incremental validity of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) scales in a private practice sample

Building on results reported in Sellbom, Graham, and Schenk (2005), in this study, we examined the incremental validity of the newly introduced MMPI-2 (Butcher et al., 2001) Restructured Clinical (RC) scales (Tellegen et al., 2003) over both the Clinical and Content scales. Participants were 647 clients in private practice who were administered the MMPI-2 and the Multiaxial Diagnostic Inventory (Doverspike, 1990) early in therapy. The results indicate that the RC scales had acceptable internal consistency, reduced intercorrelations (compared to the Clinical scales), and promising convergent and discriminant validity. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the RC scales added incrementally to both the Clinical and Content scales in predicting self reported clinical symptoms. These findings suggest that the RC scales are relatively homogenous measures of core clinical constructs that can add unique information to the understanding of private practice clients above and beyond the Clinical and Content scales.     

Incremental validity of a measure of emotional intelligence

After the Schutte Self-Report Inventory of Emotional Intelligence (SSRI; Schutte et al., 1998) was found to predict college grade point average, subsequent emotional intelligence (EI)-college adjustment research has used inconsistent measures and widely varying criteria, resulting in confusion about the construct's predictive validity. In this study, we assessed the SSRI's incremental validity for a wide range of adjustment criteria, pitting it against a competing trait measure, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992), and tests of fluid and crystallized intelligence. At a broad bandwidth, the SSRI total score significantly and uniquely predicted variance beyond NEO-FFI domain scores in the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Revised (Russell, Peplau, & Cutrono, 1980) scores. Higher fidelity analyses using previously identified SSRI factors and NEO-FFI item clusters revealed that the SSRI's Optimism/Mood Regulation and Emotion Appraisal factors contributed unique variance to self-reported study habits and social stress, respectively. The potential moderation of incremental validity by gender did not reach significance due to loss of power from splitting the sample, and mediational analyses revealed the SSRI Optimism/Mood Regulation factor was both directly and indirectly related to various criteria. We discuss the small magnitude of incremental validity coefficients and the differential incremental validity of SSRI factor and total scores.     

Ego development and conformity: a construct validity study of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test

Loevinger's conception of ego development predicts a curvilinear relation between it and conformity. Using 107 private-school boys in grades 8, 9, and 11, self-report, peer-nomination, and experimental (Willis) measures of conformity were given. An archival measure, number of demerits, was also obtained. As predicted, the self-report and archival measures show maximum conformity between the Self-Protective and Conscientious Stages as measured by the sentence completion test. These results are not artifacts of age or IQ. The Willis test does not correlates significantly any other variable, and the peer ratings were methodologically suspect. Thus one aspect of the conception of ego development is partially confirmed. Conformity. as measured by these typical tests, is shown not to be a unitary variable.     

Ego development and sociometrically evaluated maturity: an investigation of the validity of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development

The reported study was an attempt to validate the Washington University Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development (WU-SCT), using a broad, sociometric index of maturity as the criterion variable. Sixty college women living in a sorority house completed the WU-SCT and evaluated one another's readiness for mature functioning in each of four adult social roles: career, marriage, parenthood, and community involvement. The reliabilities and the intercorrelations of the ratings suggested that peers distinguished two facets of maturity. While results support the hypothesized relationship between WU-SCT scores and a global sociometric index of maturity, the test's substantial correlations with indices relating to relatively impersonal roles (career and community) and apparent lack of correlation with indices relating to intimate interpersonal roles (marital and parental) suggests that the validity of the WU-SCT may be less broad than Loevinger's theory would imply. Several alternative interpretations of the data are suggested.     

Incremental validity of the frame-of-reference effect in personality scale scores: a replication and extension

Context-specific personality items provide respondents with a common frame of reference unlike more traditional, noncontextual personality items. The common frame of reference standardizes item interpretation and has been shown to reduce measurement error while increasing validity in comparison to noncontextual items (M. J. Schmit, A. M. Ryan. S. L. Stierwalt. & S. L. Powell, 1995). Although the frame-of-reference effect on personality scales scores has been well investigated (e.g., M. J. Schmit et al., 1995), the ability of this innovation to obtain incremental validity above and beyond the well-established, noncontextual personality scale scores has yet to be examined. The current study replicates and extends work by M. J. Schmit et al. (1995) to determine the incremental validity of the frame-of-reference effect. The results indicate that context-specific personality items do indeed obtain incremental validity above and beyond both noncontextual items and cognitive ability, and in spite of socially desirable responding induced by applicant instructions. The implications of these findings for personnel selection are discussed.     

Incremental validity of the MMPI-A content scales in a residential treatment facility

The current study explores the incremental validity of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) content scales. Participants were 335 adolescents (250 boys and 85 girls) between the ages of 13 and 18 who were receiving mental health services from a residential treatment facility. Regression analyses were conducted to identify the amount of additional variance accounted for by the content scales over the clinical scales in predicting scores on a clinician rating form of psychological symptomatology. Several of the MMPI-A content scales demonstrated significant incremental validity above the clinical scales in predicting clinician ratings of adolescents' behavior and personality characteristics. The clinical scales also demonstrated incremental validity in reference to the content scales, indicating then that the two sets of scales provide complementary information. Magnitude of the additional criterion variance predicted was modest.     

Incremental validity and the assessment of psychopathology in adults

Results from studies on incremental validity are described for (a) interviews, (b) personality inventories, (c) projective techniques, and (d) brief self-rated and clinician-rated measures. In some of the studies (clinical judgment studies), psychologists were given increasing amounts of information. In other studies (statistical prediction studies), increasing amounts of assessment information were entered into a statistical prediction rule. Although relatively little research has been conducted on incremental validity, results that have been obtained tend to favor the use of interviews, personality inventories (e.g., the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory--2; J. N. Butcher, W. G. Dahlstrom, J. R., Graham, A. Tellegen, & B. Kaemmer, 1989), and brief self-rated measures (e.g., the Anxiety Sensitivity Index, S. Reiss, R. A. Peterson, D. M. Gursky, & R. M. McNally, 1986). Results are generally less encouraging for projective techniques.     

Transcendence of the Ego (The Non-Existent Knight)

I exist, but I am not a thing among things; X exists if and only if there is something such that it=X. This is consistent, and it is a view that can be supported. Calvino’s novel The Non‐Existent Knight can be read so as to illustrate this view. But what is my relation to the things there are if I am not identical with any of them – things such as my arms, my garden, the city I live in? I name this the Gurduloo problem, after the Knight’s page. This relation must be one that admits of degrees; I suggest that we say that I manifest myself through the things thus associated with me. Several pseudo‐problems, pertaining to volitional action, supervenience, observability, and the emergence of consciousness, dissolve upon inspection.     

Ego development, authoritarianism, and social status: an investigation of the incremental validity of Loevinger's sentence completion test (short form)

This study presents two sets of analyses designed to evaluate the relation between a 12-item form of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test of ego development (Short Form; SCT-S) and socioeconomic status (SES). The subjects were a large national random sample of adolescent and young adult men and women who were stratified into three artificial age cohorts. The first set of hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that SES accounted for 8% to 13% of the variance in SCT-S scores. Incremental validity of the SCT-S in predicting social attitudes, beyond that predicted by SES, was generally supported for authoritarian aggression and partially supported in predicting masculine sex role expectations. Findings suggest that research on ego development with subjects over age 18 might use level of education as a rough index of SES. For younger subjects, parental factors and education are both important. This study also provides revised age-specific national norms for the SCT-S.