Developmental changes in consistency of autobiographical memories: adolescents’ and young adults’ repeated recall of recent and distance events

Autobiographical memories contribute continuity and stability to one’s self yet they also are subject to change: they can be forgotten or be inconsistently remembered and reported. In the present research, we compared the consistency of two reports of recent and distant personal events in adolescents (12- to 14-year-olds) and young adults (18- to 23-year-olds). In line with expectations of greater mnemonic consistency among young adults relative to adolescents, adolescents reported the same events 80% of the time compared with 90% consistency among young adults; the significant difference disappeared after taking into consideration narrative characteristics of individual memories. Neither age group showed high levels of content consistency (30% vs. 36%); young adults were more consistent than adolescents even after controlling for other potential predictors of content consistency. Adolescents and young adults did not differ in consistency of estimating when their past experiences occurred. Multilevel modelling indicated that the level of thematic coherence of the initial memory report and ratings of event valence significantly predicted memory consistency at the level of the event. Thematic coherence was a significant negative predictor of content consistency. The findings suggest a developmental progression in the robustness and stability of personal memories between adolescence and young adulthood.     

Intrusive and non‐intrusive memories in a non‐clinical sample: The effects of mood and affect on imagery vividness

We studied the number, valence, and vividness of intrusive and non‐intrusive memories in two groups (N = 20) of pre‐screened non‐depressed mood and depressed mood undergraduate participants. They were asked to generate as many intrusive memories (IMs) as possible from the prior 2 weeks, together with pleasant and unpleasant non‐intrusive memories from the same period. They subsequently formed images of these memories and rated them on measures of vividness, valence, arousal, and overall affect, while having their heart rate, skin conductance, and electromyogram monitored. IMs were common, with participants generating a mean of 1.15 pleasant IMs and 1.60 unpleasant IMs, and there was some evidence that they were mood‐congruent. IMs were more vivid than non‐intrusive memories, a difference not due to either valence or arousal. We conclude that IMs are a general feature of human memory rather than just a symptom of certain clinical disorders.     

A year’s memories: The calendar effect in autobiographical recall

When asked to recall autobiographical events from the past year, students tend to recall more incidents from the beginning and the end of school terms than from other periods. We investigated thiscalendar effect in Experiment 1 by comparing free recall at schools with different academic calendars. The event distributions tracked the individual calendars, helping to eliminate the possibility that the calendar effect is due to seasonal, nonschool factors, such as holidays. In Experiments 2–4, we checked explanations based on the ideas that events at term boundaries are more important or distinctive than others, that events are incorrectly dated too near the boundaries, and that boundaries serve as implicit cues for recall. These experiments revealed no evidence that importance or errors in dating could explain the effect. Manipulating cues, however, did change the size of the effect, implicating retrieval from very long-term memory as the effect’s source. We suggest that when people have to search episodic memory, they consider their own calendar rhythms (such as a student’s academic schedule) and let the temporal structure of their personal context guide their search.     

Parental Acceptance and Children’s Psychological Adjustment in the Context of Power and Prestige

On a sample of 313 nine- through 16-year-old Spanish children this study explored the question: Is the relation between paternal versus maternal acceptance and the psychological adjustment of offspring significantly affected by the level of interpersonal power and/or prestige of each parent within the family? The relationship between perceived parental acceptance and children’s psychological adjustment depends on which parent was perceived by children to have higher interpersonal power or prestige than the other. This trend was especially strong in families when mothers were perceived to have both higher power and higher prestige than fathers. The strongest overall contribution to children’s adjustment, however, was made in families where fathers were perceived to have both the highest power and the highest prestige.     

What is the connection between true and false memories? The differential roles of interitem associations in recall and recognition.

Veridical memory for presented list words and false memory for nonpresented but related items were tested using the Deese/Roediger and McDermott paradigm. The strength and density of preexisting connections among the list words, and from the list words to the critical items, were manipulated. The likelihood of producing false memories in free recall varied with the strength of connections from the list words to the critical items but was inversely related to the density of the interconnections among the list words. In contrast, veridical recall of list words was positively related to the density of the interconnections. A final recognition test showed that both false and veridical memories were more likely when the list words were more densely interconnected. The results are discussed in terms of an associative model of memory, Processing Implicit and Explicit Representations (PIER 2) that describes the influence of implicitly activated preexisting information on memory performance.     

On the adaptive function of children's and adults’ false memories

Recent research has shown that memory illusions can successfully prime both children's and adults' performance on complex, insight-based problems (compound remote associates tasks or CRATs). The current research aimed to clarify the locus of these priming effects. Like before, Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) lists were selected to prime subsequent CRATs such that the critical lures were also the solution words to a subset of the CRATs participants attempted to solve. Unique to the present research, recognition memory tests were used and participants were either primed during the list study phase, during the memory test phase, or both. Across two experiments, primed problems were solved more frequently and significantly faster than unprimed problems. Moreover, when participants were primed during the list study phase, subsequent solution times and rates were considerably superior to those produced by those participants who were simply primed at test. Together, these are the first results to show that false-memory priming during encoding facilitates problem-solving in both children and adults.     

Grammatical structure and recall: A function of the space in immediate memory or of recall delay?

Savin and Perchonock suggest that when a sentence and additional unrelated words are presented for immediate recall, the number of words recalled in addition to that sentence represents the space left over in a limited memory store after the sentence and its transformational tag have been stored. They report error data and word-recall data in support of a transformational model of sentence processing. In two replications of that study, error data failed to support the transformational model. Furthermore, the word-recall data could be attributed to differential word-recall delays-the more complex the sentence, the longer the delay between word presentation and word recall. These findings, as well as others in the literature. fail to support a transformational interpretation of sentence processing.     

Semantic and formational clustering in deaf and hearing subjects’ free recall of signs

To investigate whether formational properties of sign language are used spontaneously to organize long-term memory, 16 deaf college students were given a free recall task with items that could be categorized either by shared semantic category or by shared sign language hand shape. Both presentation and response modes (signed or written) were varied between subjects. Analyses revealed no effects of mode on trials to criterion or number of items recalled at 1 week. The clustering that occurred was exclusively semantic, with significantly higher clustering scores during acquisition trials in subjects required to sign their responses. In Experiment 2, formational clustering was encouraged by including formational similarity as the only experimenter-defined basis of categorization, by increasing formational similarity within categories, and by testing only subjects with high signing skills. Input and output modes were again varied between subjects. Subjects were deaf college students with deaf parents (n = 10) or hearing parents (n = 16), and hearing adults with deaf parents (n = 8). Again, spontaneous clustering by formational similarity was extremely low. In only one case— deaf subjects with hearing parents given signed input—did formational clustering increase significantly across the eight acquisition trials. After the categorical nature of the list was explained to subjects at a 1-week retention session, all groups clustered output by formational categories. Apparently, fluent signers do have knowledge of the formational structure of signs, but do not spontaneously use this knowledge as a basis of mnemonic organization in long-term memory.     

The examination of factors influencing the recognition of affective states associated with tennis players’ non-verbal behaviour

In tennis, the non-verbal behaviours shown after a rally may indicate the affective state of players. The purpose of the present study was to assess whether (a) the point outcome, (b) the duration of video-excerpts, and (c) the tennis expertise of the participants would influence the recognition rates of the affective state. To that end, 115 participants were shown non-verbal behaviour of tennis players after a point and asked to rate whether the player had just won or lost a point. The results indicate that the recognition rates were higher for lost than for won points. Moreover, participants who were members of a tennis club had a higher recognition rate. Finally, there was no difference in the recognition rate regarding the duration of video excerpts. The findings point to a negativity bias and the bio-cultural framework in relation to the recognition of affective states associated with non-verbal behaviour.     

Psychological mobility and career success in the ‘New’ career climate

We examined the influence of two types of psychological mobility, i.e. boundaryless mindset and organizational mobility preference, on career success. We hypothesized that this relationship would be partially mediated by physical mobility. In addition, we expected the direction of the influence to depend on the type of psychological mobility. We tested our hypotheses using data of 357 business alumni. Results showed that a boundaryless mindset related positively to wage and promotions, while organizational mobility preference led to less promotions, lower job satisfaction and lower career satisfaction. The relationship between boundaryless mindset and career success was partially mediated by functional mobility whereas organizational mobility preference impacted career success via organizational mobility. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed.     

Intrusions in preschoolers’ recall of traumatic childhood events

We investigated the presence of intrusions in preschoolers’ memories for traumatic incidents by examining 30-, 36-, and 48-month-olds’ initial and 6-month recall of traumatic events that required emergency room treatment. The basic findings were (1) the number of preschoolers who produced an intrusion at the 6th month’s interview declined with age, (2) only the youngest preschoolers produced reliably more intrusions at 6 months than initially, (3) the amount of intruded information did not vary with age, and (4) the amount of information correctly recalled about the target traumatic event increased with age and was not affected by the presence of intrusions at any age. That preschoolers were able to recall considerable information concerning the target event, regardless of whether they did or did not produce intrusions, has implications for the veracity of their memories of trauma in real-life situations over extended retention intervals.     

Wisdom at the end of life: Hospice patients’ reflections on the meaning of life and death

The processes of aging and confronting mortality are often accompanied by unique psychological challenges. From the perspective of positive psychology, such challenges can yield opportunities for growth, including increased wisdom. This qualitative study explored 15 terminally ill hospice patients’ perspectives on wisdom, the dying process, and the meaning of life using consensual qualitative research methods. Most participants cited humility as a key component of wisdom, emphasizing that “Wisdom is when we realize ‘I don’t really know much’.” Other components of wisdom included self-knowledge, rationality, experiential learning, listening to and learning from others, and sharing knowledge with others. Participants also suggested that the process of facing illness and death presents opportunities for positive growth, including changing priorities and learning to appreciate life more fully in the present moment. In considering the sources of meaning in their lives, participants emphasized relational connections, personal growth, spirituality, vocational fulfilment, and living a full life. Participants also shared their reflections on important past experiences and regrets. Lastly, participants offered advice to others based on their experiences facing illness and mortality. Implications for psychological care of the dying and future research are discussed.     

Stability and consistency of children’s event recall

The purpose of the study was to investigate consistency of recall across different tasks of event recall (similar to eyewitness tasks) and stability of performance across two different events. Additionally, developmental differences in consistency and stability were explored. 6-, 8-, and 10-year-old children were subsequently shown two different events (videos) and were questioned about each event in two separate interviews. For both videos, performance levels in free recall, unbiased cued recall, and suggestibility were at similar levels, with older children generally outperforming younger children. As to intertask consistency of recall, there were significant correlations between correct free recall and correct unbiased cued recall but not between correct free recall and yielding to suggestive questions. All three measures of eyewitness performance showed significant group stability (test-retest correlations) across the two interviews, regardless of age. However, individual stability (lability) was lower, which points to moderate individual differences in stability across the two interviews. The findings are discussed in terms of underlying cognitive skills and the problem of predicting a single child’s memory performance in real cases of eyewitness testimony.     

A simulator study of factors influencing drivers’ behavior at traffic lights

Drivers’ reactions to changing traffic lights have an impact on safety at intersections. We examined the influence of transient factors – more specifically time pressure and social context, both conducive to traffic-light violation – on behavior behind the wheel when a traffic light changes. We carried out an experiment on a driving simulator. The participants were 94 car drivers (53 males) with a mean age of 21.7 years. They drove under time pressure vs. no time pressure. At several intersections the participants were alone (no other drivers present), whereas at several other intersections they were behind a line-up of vehicles, the last of which ran the yellow light (other drivers present). As expected, time pressure and social context (presence of other drivers) increased participants’ risky behaviors while approaching, and going through traffic lights, as well as undesirable rapid accelerations when the signal changes to green. The effect of time pressure on yellow-light running was not mediated by approach speed, which showed that participants in a hurry were likely to run lights intentionally. The results are interpreted in view of proposing effective measures for reducing yellow-light running and rapid accelerations at traffic lights.     

Analysis of the factors affecting drivers’ queue-jumping behaviors in China

In China, drivers’ queue-jumping behaviors are very common. To explore the factors affecting drivers’ queue-jumping, first, a driving attitude scale, a risk perception scale and a queue-jumping behavior scale were designed, and an existing Type A behavior pattern scale and a driver skill scale were also introduced. Second, these scales were used to collect empirical data, and 202 valid samples were obtained. Third, the reliability and validity of the developed scales were verified, and a structural equation model of drivers’ queue-jumping behaviors was established to explore the interrelationships among the Type A personality trait, cognitions (including attitudes and risk perception), driver skills (including driving skill and safety motivation) and queue-jumping behaviors. The results showed that drivers’ cognitions significantly affected their queue-jumping behaviors; specifically, drivers’ attitudes toward queue-jumping and traffic violations positively correlated with their queue-jumping behaviors (β = 0.323, t = 3.470; β = 0.277, t = 3.072), while drivers’ risk perception toward queue-jumping negatively correlated with their queue-jumping behaviors (β = −0.297, t = −3.889). Drivers’ driving skill and safety motivation also significantly affected their queue-jumping behaviors (β = 0.198, t = 2.385; β = −0.355, t = −4.101). Although Type A personality trait had no significant effects on drivers’ queue-jumping behaviors, it had significant effects on drivers’ attitudes toward queue-jumping and traffic violations (β = 0.336, t = 4.720; β = 0.215, t = 2.873) and their risk perceptions toward queue-jumping (β = −0.232, t = −3.279). In other words, the Type A personality trait can indirectly affect drivers’ queue-jumping behaviors through drivers’ attitudes and risk perceptions toward queue-jumping. The results provided offer traffic administration departments a theoretical foundation for governing this behavior.     

Are false memories more difficult to forget than accurate memories? The effect of retention interval on recall and recognition

What is the effect of retention interval on accurate and false recollection in the Deese, Roediger, and McDermott (DRM) procedure? Previous research has suggested that false recall is more persistent than accurate recall, but the recognition results have been inconsistent. In two parametric studies, we tested recall and recognition for the same DRM lists, over retention intervals that ranged from no delay to a 2-month delay. We found that accurate and false memory were diminished by increases in retention interval, false memory persistence was present for recall and recognition, greater persistence for false memory than for accurate memory was more readily observed for recall than recognition, and the highthreshold (Pr), signal detection (d’), and nonparametric (A’) recognition measures differed in their sensitivity for detecting change. The effect of retention interval on accurate and false memory is consistent with expectations from fuzzy trace theory. In the DRM procedure, truth is not more memorable than fiction.     

Argentines’ collective memories of the military Junta of 1976: differences and similarities across generations and ideology

Although memories about a nation's past usually are semantic in nature, a distinction needs to be made between lived and distant semantic collective memories. The former refers to memories of community-relevant events occurring during the lifetime of the rememberer, whereas the latter to memories of distant events. Does the content of lived and distant semantic collective memories differ? Employing both free and cued recall, we examined the memories of younger and older Argentines of the Military Junta of 1976. We also examined the effects of political ideology. Content analysis indicated that (1) lived semantic collective memories were more likely to contain personal recollections than distant semantic collective memories, even though those with distant semantic collective memories could have incorporated memories of the parent's personal experience in their recollections, (2) lived semantic collective memories contained more causal statements, and (3) those on the Right with distant semantic collective memories were more likely to claim that they “Don't know” or offer positive accounts of the Junta, suggesting a need to “defend” the reputation of those on the Right. The results are discussed in terms of the goals and plans different generations might have when recollecting their nation's past.