知道感（FOK）和不知道感（FOnK）的实验分离

新近的脑成像研究结果提示：“知道感”（FOK）与“不知道感”（FOnK）可能是由两种不同的认知与脑机制所实现的。尽管这一设想质疑了以往的知道感研究中对此二者不加区分的处理方法,但脑成像研究在本质上是一种相关研究,因而并不能提供因果性的推论。这项行为实验将加工深度对FOK和FOnK的影响分开来加以考察,结果发现：深度加工只能使FOK的预测准确性增加,但却不但不能使FOnK的预测准确性增加,反而会使之降低。上述结果在（1）被试内设计,（2）被试间设计,（3）排除熟悉性所导致的不确定的再认等三种情况下都成立。上述结果为知道感的“双过程假设”提供了来自行为研究的证据。     

“知道感”任务中的图片和字词的感受性和判断标准

该实验考察了在“知道感”（FOK）任务中的字词和图片的感受性和判断标准的差异。实验运用Hart的“回忆—FOK判断—再认”（RJR）范式,用字词和图片作为刺激材料,采用两种不同的加工水平,并根据信号检测论中的评价法对结果进行分析,结果表明：在知道感任务中,只有在线索回忆正确百分率和FOK判断等级上表现出了图片优势效应,而再认正确率和FOK准确性则没有图片优势;而且,不论是深加工还是浅加工,被试对字词和图片的感受性都没有显著性差异,但判断标准的变化较为复杂,且受加工水平的影响较大,显示出图片优势效应的产生与被试的反应偏向有关。     

知道感与不知道感：两种不同的认知加工过程——一项来自行为实验的证据

脑成像研究表明,准确的知晓感（FOK）可以分为知道感和不知道感,两者可能依赖不同的大脑机制实现。该研究通过两个实验,检验了线索和靶子的频率对FOK判断准确性的影响,并在行为水平上考察了“知道感和不知道感可能通过不同的认知过程来实现”的假设。实验一表明：靶子字的频率对FOK判断的准确性有影响,即靶子为低频字时,FOK判断的准确性降低;同时,线索和靶子的字频对知道感和不知道感判断的等级没有影响。实验二显示：线索熟悉性只影响准确的不知道感判断等级,而靶项目强度只影响准确的知道感判断等级,即产生了非交叉的双重分离。综上,我们发现了靶子的字频对FOK判断准确性的影响,并从行为实验的角度证实,知道感和不知道感依赖不同的认知加工过程。     

FOK研究中一种新的标准测验——过度重复学习

提出FOK研究中一种新的标准测验形式——过度重复学习,并验证过度重复学习作为FOK研究的标准测验的可行性;另外还比较了作为标准测验,过度重复学习与再认的差别。同时,还探索了FOK判断中存在的两种错误类型——替代性错误和忽略性错误在FOK判断等级和标准测验成绩方面的差异。两个实验结果表明：FOK判断在预期随后的标准测验(过度重复学习和再认)成绩上是有准确性的;过度重复学习可以作为一种标准测验。实验结果还显示：替代性错误比忽略性错误的FOK判断等级要高;且无论是用再认还是用过度重复学习做标准测验,都能检验出两种错误类型项目在记忆激活强度上的差异。     

汉字错误记忆的形、音编码差异研究

采取DRM范式,要求被试判断词表项目的字形结构或音调,从而间接学习词表,考察了关联性、不同编码方式和测验情境（测验次数、测验词颜色两个变量）对真实和错误记忆的影响。实验发现：（1）随着关联性的增加,未学词的错误再认率也增加,说明关联性是引发错误记忆的必要条件;（2）字形判断比字音判断下的错误再认率要高,说明汉字中形—义联结可能比音—义联结更加紧密;（3）测验情境对真实和错误记忆影响并不相同,表明两者虽然同源,但具有完全不同的机制。     

知道感（FOK）和不知道感（FOnK）的双向实验分离

为了实现FOK（feeling-of-knowing）和FonK（feeling-of-not-knowing）的双向分离,实验一采用高频词或者低频词为线索项目,检验FOK和FOnK的预测准确性。结果发现,在低频线索条件下FOK的预测准确性表现出高于FOnK的预测准确性的趋势,而在高频线索条件下则正好相反,但上述两组差异并未在统计学上达到显著的程度。实验二采用词－非词对和相关词对两种实验条件,在证明相关词对条件可以促进FOK并降低FOnK的同时,观察到词－非词条件可以促进FOnK并降低FOK,从而在较为严格的意义上证明了FOK和FOnK是两个不同的维度的量。上述结果为知道感的“双过程假设”提供了进一步的实验证据     

双加工再认提取中的情绪记忆增强效应

根据双加工理论, 再认提取可以划分为两种不同的加工：熟悉性与回想。以往的研究普遍认为情绪对再认提取具有增强效应, 但是情绪对再认记忆中两种不同加工方式(熟悉性与回想)的增强效应的神经机制尚存争议。本研究以ERP作为测量手段, 采用修正的“记得/知道”范式对情绪图片进行再认测验, 旨在探究在学习?测验间隔较长的条件下, 情绪信息如何对熟悉性与回想产生增强效应。在行为结果中, 对于知道判断, 情绪图片的记忆表现显著高于中性图片, 情绪效价间没有差异; 对于记得判断, 负性情绪图片的记忆表现要显著高于正性与中性图片。在ERP数据上, 对于知道判断, 情绪图片的FN400新旧效应有增强作用。对于记得判断, 负性图片的LPC的新旧效应波幅显著高于中性与负性图片; 而正性图片的LPC新旧效应增强作用不显著。以上证据表明：学习?测验间隔较长的情况下, 熟悉性再认提取中, 情绪记忆增强效应主要体现在情绪唤醒对记忆强度的提高, 而不仅仅体现在情绪效价对熟悉判断反应倾向的影响。在回想的再认提取中, 情绪效价的调节占据主导地位, 负性情绪图片有显著的情绪记忆增强效应; 正性情绪图片则不具有增强效应。     

负性情绪词错误再认的跨语言实验

根据词语情绪标准编制汉语双字词关联词表和英汉双语关联词表,考察DRM任务下的英汉双语者对负性情绪诱词产生的语言内、语言间关联性错误再认。结果表明：（1）汉语双字词语义关联下,情绪色彩的强度影响错误再认水平,负性诱词的错误再认率显著高于中性诱词;（2）英汉双语语义关联下,错误再认发生跨语言现象,汉语负性诱词的错误再认显著高于英语负性诱词与汉语中性诱词的错误再认;（3）汉语负性诱词的语言间关联性错误再认率显著增加, 语言类型、词表类型与情绪强度有显著交互作用。     

负性情绪强度对双加工再认提取的影响

双加工理论认为再认提取存在回想和熟悉性两种认知加工过程。本研究采用修正的“记得/知道”范式,考察不同强度的负性情绪对这两种再认提取过程的影响。结果发现：（1）在记得反应上不同负性情绪强度的材料呈现出以下模式：高度负性 > 中度负性 > 轻度负性 > 中性;（2）在知道反应上,不同负性情绪强度的材料呈现出以下模式：中性 > 轻度负性 > 中度负性 > 高度负性。这些结果表明,不同强度的负性材料对情绪记忆的影响表现为两条途径：依赖于回想的再认随着负性情绪强度的增加而逐步提高,另外一个依赖于熟悉性的再认随着负性情绪强度的增加而逐步降低。     

短时间延迟条件下错误记忆的遗忘

两个实验中,使用DRM范式考察了短时间延迟条件下错误记忆的遗忘效应。实验一发现对两种关键项目的错误再认均随着时间延迟（即时、半小时和1个小时）的增加而提高,而在将时间变量由实验一中的被试内设计变为实验二中的被试间设计后,发现对两种关键项目的错误再认随着时间而发生不同的变化,表现为对关键诱饵的错误再认保持稳定而对中关联词的错误再认依然有所提高。说明错误记忆很顽固,一旦产生便很难衰退,当消除了其他干扰因素的潜在影响后,即使是在很短暂的测验时间延迟条件下,它至少是保持稳定的,不会随着时间而发生减弱。此外还发现了关联性和测验情境与测验时间延迟之间的交互影响,表现为对关键诱饵的错误再认受测验时间延迟的影响较小,受测验情境的影响较大;而对中关联词的错误再认则受测验时间延迟的影响较大,受测验情境的影响较小     

Divided attention at encoding: Effect on feeling-of-knowing

This research investigated the effect of divided attention at encoding on feeling-of-knowing (FOK). Participants had to learn a 60 word-pair list under two experimental conditions, one with full attention (FA) and one with divided attention (DA). After that, they were administered episodic FOK tasks with a cued-recall phase, a FOK phase and a recognition phase. Our results showed that DA at encoding altered not only memory performance, but also FOK judgments and FOK accuracy. These findings throw some light on the central role of the quality of memory encoding to make accurate FOK judgments and provide new evidence supporting the relationship between memory and metamemory judgments.     

Age differences in memory retrieval shift: governed by feeling-of-knowing?

The noun-pair lookup (NP) task was used to evaluate strategic shift from visual scanning to retrieval. We investigated whether age differences in feeling-of-knowing (FOK) account for older adults' delayed retrieval shift. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) standard NP learning, (2) fast binary FOK judgments, or (3) Choice, where participants had to choose in advance whether to see the look-up table or respond from memory. We found small age differences in FOK magnitudes but major age differences in memory retrieval choices that mirrored retrieval use in the standard NP task. Older adults showed lower resolution in their confidence judgments (CJs) for recognition memory tests on the NP items, and this difference appeared to influence rates of retrieval shift, given that retrieval use was correlated with CJ magnitudes in both age groups. Older adults had particular difficulty with accuracy and confidence for rearranged pairs, relative to intact pairs. Older adults' slowed retrieval shift appears to be attributable to (1) impaired associative learning early in practice, not just a lower FOK; but also (2) retrieval reluctance later in practice after the degree of associative learning would afford memory-based responding.     

Effects of aging and divided attention on episodic feeling-of-knowing accuracy

This research investigated the effect of aging on episodic feeling-of-knowing (FOK) using a divided attention (DA) paradigm in order to examine whether DA in younger adults mimics the effects of aging when decreasing either memory encoding or monitoring processes. To that end, four groups of participants were tested on the FOK task: young adults (control group), young adults under DA at encoding, young adults under DA when making FOK judgments, and older adults. Our results showed that DA at encoding in young adults mimicked the effect of aging on memory performance, and also on FOK magnitude and accuracy, supporting the memory-constraint hypothesis ( Hertzog et al., 2010). However, our results do not completely contradict the monitoring-deficit hypothesis, as DA during FOK judgments also affected FOK accuracy, but to a lesser extent than the aging effect or DA during encoding. We suggest that the age-related FOK deficit may be due to a lower level of deep encoding, leading to difficulty retrieving target-related contextual details enabling accurate prediction of subsequent recognition.     

A comparison of three predictors of an individual's memory performance: the individual's feeling of knowing versus the normative feeling of knowing versus base-rate item difficulty

Distinctions are drawn between different predictors of an individual's memory performance, with emphasis on the notion of privileged access to idiosyncratic knowledge. Research is reported in which undergraduates attempted to recall the answers to general-information questions, then made feeling-of-knowing judgments on nonrecalled items, and subsequently had a criterion test (relearning, perceptual identification, or one of two versions of recognition). For predicting an individual's criterion performance, the individual's own feeling-of-knowing predictions were intermediate between two kinds of normative predictions: The individual's feeling-of-knowing predictions were more accurate than predictions derived from normative feeling-of-knowing ratings but were less accurate than predictions derived from base-rate item difficulty (normative probabilities of correct recall). Subsidiary analyses showed that factors other than unreliability are responsible for the partial inaccuracy of the individual's feeling of knowing. Ramifications are discussed for possible ways to improve the accuracy of an individual's feeling-of-knowing predictions.     

Two dissociable aspects of feeling-of-knowing: Knowing that you know and knowing that you do not know

Feeling-of-knowing judgement is traditionally regarded as a unitary cognitive process. However, recent research suggests that knowing that you know (positive feeling-of-knowing) and knowing that you do not know (negative feeling-of-knowing) have different neural substrates (Luo, Niki, Ying, & Luo, 2004 Luo, J., Niki, K., Ying, X. P. and Luo, Y. J. 2004. Knowing that you know and knowing that you don't know: A fMRI study on feeling of knowing (FOK). Acta Psychologica Sinica, 36: 426–443.  [Google Scholar]). In the present study, we used a paradigm adapted from Koriat and Levy-Sadot (2001) Koriat, A. and Levy-Sadot, R. 2001. The combined contributions of the cue-familiarity and accessibility heuristics to feelings of knowing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27: 34–53. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] to examine whether positive feeling-of-knowing and negative feeling-of-knowing were mediated by distinct cognitive processes. We found that positive and negative feeling-of-knowing were dissociated during immediate feeling-of-knowing judgements (i.e., preliminary feeling-of-knowing) and delayed feeling-of-knowing judgements (i.e., postretrieval feeling-of-knowing). At the judgement intervals, positive feeling-of-knowing was based on partial recovery of the nonrecalled targets, whereas negative feeling-of-knowing was determined by familiarity with the retrieval cues. Our results suggest that feeling-of-knowing is a heterogeneous process.     

Age differences in feeling-of-knowing and confidence judgements as a function of knowledge domain

For two semantic knowledge domains, general and computer-related, feeling-of-knowing (FOK) and confidence level (CL) ratings and their relative accuracy were assessed in young, middle-aged, and older adults, after test difficulty was equated across age groups. Global memory self-efficacy beliefs were also assessed for each domain. As expected, greater age was associated with poorer memory self-efficacy beliefs only in the computer domain. The oldest two groups were found to be more underconfident than young adults when rating their FOK but not their CL, for computer items but not for general items. Statistical control of age differences in memory self-efficacy beliefs in the relevant domain greatly reduced this age effect on computer-related FOK ratings. This finding suggests that absolute FOK judgments are more closely related to memory self-efficacy beliefs than are CL judgments. Gamma correlations between judgments and recognition performance revealed that all age groups were equally accurate in FOK and in CL judgments, in both domains.     

Episodic feeling-of-knowing relies on noncriterial recollection and familiarity: Evidence using an online remember-know procedure

We examined the hypothesis that feeling-of-knowing judgments rely on recollection as well as on familiarity prompted by the cue presentation. A remember-know-no memory procedure was combined with the episodic FOK procedure employing a cue–target pair memory task. The magnitude of FOK judgments and FOK accuracy were examined as a function of recollection, familiarity, or the “no memory” option. Results showed that the proportion of R and K responses was similar. FOK accuracy and magnitude of FOK judgments were higher for R and K responses than for N responses. FOK accuracy related to R and K responses were above chance level, but FOK was not accurate in the “no memory” condition. Finally, both FOK magnitude and FOK accuracy were related more to recollection than to familiarity. These results support the hypothesis that both recollection and familiarity are determinants of the FOK process, although they suggest that recollection has a stronger influence.     

Memory and metamemory in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Studies on the link between checking and memory problems have produced equivocal results regarding a general memory deficit in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and subclinical checkers. However, there is clear and consistent evidence that patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) show lack of confidence in their memory performance. The purpose of the present study was to investigate memory and metamemory performance (feeling-of-knowing judgments) for neutral and threat-related material in three groups: OCD patients (OCs), subclinical checkers (SCs), and normal controls (NCs). Participants studied a list of neutral and threat word pairs. After an initial cued-recall test, they provided feeling-of-knowing (FOK) judgments for unrecalled word pairs, followed by a recognition test. The results showed that OCs but not SCs were impaired in both recall and recognition compared to NCs. OCs were also less confident about their future memory performance than the other two groups, as reflected in their lower FOK ratings. Moreover, FOK judgments of the OCs were not reliable predictors of their recognition performance. Finally, neither OCs nor SCs showed any evidence of memory bias for threat-relevant information. The results support the idea of a general memory and a metamemory deficit in OCs.