Eficacia de tácticas de influencia en la intención de conducta proambiental

This paper analyzes the effectiveness of social influence tactics based on both psychological (commitment/consistency), and cultural principles (identitarian, conspicuous, statutory), for favoring the intention of pro-environmental behavior. An experimental study was conducted using a 2×5 factorial design, where the variables were the type of influence tactics manipulated by discourse in each experimental group and gender. The dependent variable measured the intention of pro-environmental behavior related to reducing waste, wasteful or unnecessary expense of water, gas and electricity at home. The effectiveness of the tactics for favoring the intention of pro-environmental behavior is verified, and significant differences are found between males and females in messages based on principles of coherence and conspicuous consumption.     

The ultimate femme fatale? Narcissism predicts serious and aggressive sexually coercive behaviour in females

Narcissism has been associated with persistent sexual persuasion, coercion, aggression, and rape conducive beliefs. However, the majority of research has concentrated on male samples. The present study (N = 329) investigated narcissism and sexually coercive tactics, varying in severity, in both males and females. Males scored significantly higher on total narcissism and sexual coercion. However, when narcissism was investigated in relation to sexually coercive tactics, it was found that narcissistic females were just as likely to engage in serious and aggressive sexually coercive behaviour. In addition, sexual coercion in males related to more socially desirable aspects of narcissism (adaptive narcissism), whereas in females, sexual coercion was associated with socially toxic components of the construct (maladaptive narcissism). Our results demonstrate that gender differences in narcissism can differ significantly when investigating the impact narcissism has on a specific type of behaviour such as sexual coercion. These new findings contribute to the very little we already know about narcissism in females, suggesting that both sexes should be included in future research on narcissism.     

Sexually coercive tactics used by university students: a clear role for primary psychopathy

Current research suggests that people with psychopathic traits engage in sexual coercion as an alternative mating strategy. Research overlooks the relation between psychopathic traits and coercive behavior in male and female samples that engage in dating quite frequently. Male and female university students reported on their current relationship styles and their use of minor and severe sexually coercive tactics. Results indicate that primary psychopathy (using the Levenson's SRPS), but not secondary psychopathy, predicts the use of all measures of sexual coercion for both females and males, although males were more likely to exploit an intoxicated partner than females. Additionally, females with high levels of primary psychopathy were more likely to use physical forms of coercion. The findings show that the primary psychopathy features (callousness, charm, and selfishness) predict a shortterm mating strategy that focuses on gaining sex through minor forms of coercion and manipulation.     

Sex differences in cerebral laterality of language and visuospatial processing

Sex differences on language and visuospatial tasks are of great interest, with differences in hemispheric laterality hypothesized to exist between males and females. Some functional imaging studies examining sex differences have shown that males are more left lateralized on language tasks and females are more right lateralized on visuospatial tasks; however, findings are inconsistent. Here we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to study thirty participants, matched on task performance, during phonological and visuospatial tasks. For each task, region-of-interest analyses were used to test differences in cerebral laterality. Results indicate that lateralization differences exist, with males more left lateralized during the phonological task and showing greater bilateral activity during the visuospatial task, whereas females showed greater bilateral activity during the phonological task and were more right lateralized during the visuospatial task. Our data provide clear evidence for differences in laterality between males and females when processing language versus visuospatial information.     

Sex differences in object location memory and spatial navigation in Long-Evans rats

In both humans and rodents, males typically excel on a number of tasks requiring spatial ability. However, human females exhibit advantages in memory for the spatial location of objects. This study investigated whether rats would exhibit similar sex differences on a task of object location memory (OLM) and on the watermaze (WM). We predicted that females should outperform males on the OLM task and that males should outperform females on the WM. To control for possible effects of housing environment, rats were housed in either complex environments or in standard shoebox housing. Eighty Long-Evans rats (40 males and 40 females) were housed in either complex (Complex rats) or standard shoebox housing (Control rats). Results indicated that males had superior performance on the WM, whereas females outperformed males on the OLM task, regardless of housing environment. As these sex differences cannot be easily attributed to differences in cognitive style related to linguistic processing of environmental features or to selection pressures related to the hunting gathering evolutionary prehistory of humans, these data suggest that sex differences in spatial ability may be related to traits selected for by polygynous mating strategies.     

Racial Differences on the Conners Teacher Rating Scale

Factor congruence and mean differences on the Conners Teacher Rating Scale were assessed across African-American and Caucasian school children. Factor analyses conducted separately by gender revealed similar factors across races for males and females. The main differences in factor structure within gender were the presence of an Antisocial factor in black males and an Inattention factor in white females. Across both males and females, teachers tended to rate black children higher than white children on factors relating to externalizing behaviors. Whether mean differences are a result of teacher bias or actual behavioral differences in the classroom needs further research.     

Sex differences in attributions for sex-typed tasks1

Recent studies have indicated that males make more egotistical attributions than females, that is, males make more internal attributions for success and more external attributions for failure than females do. These sex differences in attributions were examined in terms of male/female differences in expectancies for success and ego-involvement in the tasks. Male and female subjects succeeded or failed on a masculine or a feminine task. It was found that males made more egotistical attributions than females on the masculine task, but females made more egotistical attributions than males on the feminine task. A covariance analysis revealed that these sex differences in attributions could be explained in terms of the differences between the males and females in expectancy for success and in ego-involvement. Finally, it was found that ego-involvement was a more important determinant of egotisical attributions in the present study than was expectancy.     

Sex-related differences in socio-political ideology

The study was directed towards uncovering differences in socio-political ideology between males and females. The subjects consisted of 532 Swedish high school students from metropolitan Stockholm. All subjects were from the same grade and of approximately the same age (18 years). The results failed to disclose any significant differences in the political party preference of males and females. However, there were a number of statistically significant differences in the socio-political attitudes of males and females as measured by the S5 Conservatism Scale. Females were found to be less generally conservative, less racist, pro-western, punitive and more religious and egalitarian than males. Despite certain ideological differences between males and females, the socio-political attitude profiles and the attitude structures, as measured by profile and factor analyses, were quite similar for males and females. The results are discussed in terms of four schools of thought concerning the sources of sex-related differences in political style.     

Gender differences in causal attributions by college students of performance on course examinations

Gender differences in causal attributions and emotions for imagined success and failure on examinations were investigated. Males made stronger ability attributions for success than females, whereas females emphasized the importance of studying and paying attention. Males more than females attributed failure to a lack of studying and low interest, but females were more likely than males to blame an F on a lack of ability. Females experienced stronger emotions than did males; they felt happier than males did after success but felt more like a failure than did males after imagining receiving an F on an examination. Some of the gender differences in causal attributions, especially for ability attributions, depended on the gender-type of the subject matter of the examinations. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Gender differences in causal attributions by college students of performance on course examinations

Gender differences in causal attributions and emotions for imagined success and failure on examinations were investigated. Males made stronger ability attributions for success than females, whereas females emphasized the importance of studying and paying attention. Males more than females attributed failure to a lack of studying and low interest, but females were more likely than males to blame an F on a lack of ability. Females experienced stronger emotions than did males; they felt happier than males did after success but felt more like a failure than did males after imagining receiving an F on an examination. Some of the gender differences in causal attributions, especially for ability attributions, depended on the gender-type of the subject matter of the examinations. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Gender differences in memory processing: evidence from event-related potentials to faces

This study investigated gender differences on memory processing using event-related potentials (ERPs). Behavioral data and ERPs were recorded in 16 males and 10 females during a recognition memory task for faces. The behavioral data results showed that females performed better than males. Gender differences on ERPs were evidenced over anterior locations and involve the modulation of two spatially and temporally distinct components. These results are in general accordance with the view that males and females differ in the cognitive strategies they use to process information. Specifically, they could differ in their abilities to maintain information over interference and in the processing of the intrinsic contextual attributes of items, respectively, associated with the modulation of two anterior components. These interpretations lend support to the view that processing in females entails more detailed elaboration of information content than in males. Processing in males is more likely driven by schemas or overall information theme.     

JOB ORIENTATION OF MALES AND FEMALES: ARE SEX DIFFERENCES DECLINING?

Sex differences in job orientation found by Manhardt (1972) were explored to determine if they still exist, or if a trend toward similarity as found in studies on traits and behaviors prevails. Significant sex differences were found on 8 of 25 job characteristics, compared with 11 found by Manhardt. In the original study, factor analysis indicated that males value long-range career objectives while females prefer a comfortable working environment and pleasant interpersonal relationships. This study extracted similar factors which explained twice the variance found in the original. However, sex differences on factor preference were mixed. Further, results show that males are less homogeneous in their preference than are females, a complete reversal of results found previously. Implications for personnel managers in handling differences on job orientation of males and females are discussed.     

The influence of gender, handedness, and performance level on specialized cognitive functioning

Individual differences in performance on neuropsychological tests were analyzed across age (prepubertal to adult), gender, and handedness groups and examined for performance level as a moderating variable. No differences were observed for the factor structure of these tests across ages and between genders, suggesting similar cognitive structures among these groups. Significant differences in performance were observed between males and females and, to a lesser extent, between right and left handers. Of interest, were significant Gender x Handedness and Gender x Handedness x Level (of performance) interactions seen especially in the older (postpubertal and adult) subjects. High performing, right handed males and left handed females performed better on visuospatial tasks while left handed males and right handed females performed better on verbosequential tasks.     

Gender differences in the Big Five personality development: A longitudinal investigation from late adolescence to emerging adulthood

The present study aims to investigate gender differences in the mean-level change of the Big Five from late adolescence to emerging adulthood. We analyzed longitudinal self-report data from 192 males and 211 females, using multigroup Latent Growth Modeling. Gender differences were found in the shape of the trajectory, as well as in the mean and in the variance of the growth curve parameters (i.e. the initial level and the rate of change). At time 1 (Age 16), females scored significantly higher on measures of Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness. Males, in contrast, scored higher than females on a measure of Emotional stability. In both males and females, Conscientiousness and Openness increased linearly from age 16 to age 20, whereas Energy/Extraversion remained stable. Emotional stability slightly increased in males and remained stable in females. Agreeableness increased linearly in males and showed a quadratic trend in females, first increasing and then declining over time. Finally, females showed higher interindividual variability than males on the trajectories of Conscientiousness and Emotional stability.     

Aggressive behavior of adult bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) towards conspecifics

Male and female bank voles reared in different conditions were investigated for their aggressiveness in order to show how social factors modify intermale and interfemale behavior. Singly reared males or females were paired with a tested animal for 10 min. The number of attacks and the accumulative attack times of singly reared males were higher than for females reared in similar conditions. The differences were not, however, statistically significant due to the variation among tested animals. There were significant differences in aggressiveness of females reared in various conditions before the test. Most attacks were observed in females reared with intact males. In this group, the accumulative attack time was significantly higher than that of singly reared, grouped females, or females kept with castrated or castrated-testosterone-treated males. Also, the aggression of males was affected by breeding. Both the number of attacks and the accumulative attack times were elevated in intact males kept with females. Housing of males in groups and castration significantly decreased the number of attacks of these animals. Injection of testosterone increased aggression in castrated males. It is suggested that olfactory signals in bank voles released by males increase aggression in females and the female's signals stimulate male behavior.     

PERSONAL SPACE AMONGST ARABS AND AMERICANS*

Personal space zones were examined amongst Arab and American university students by jointly varying degree of acquaintanceship and sex of subject. Overall, there were few differences between Arab and American males. Arab females, however, showed dramatic differences in comparison to American males and females and to Arab males. Arab females kept male friends very far away relative to female friends. Indeed, male friends were kept almost as far away as male strangers.     

More alike than meets the eye: Perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its display

This research investigated perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its outward display. Subjects imagined a female friend or a male friend in a series of brief situations, each of which was said to elicit a particular subjective experience in the friend. After each situation, they estimated the extent to which the friend would experience the feeling, and also the extent to which the friend would display the feeling to others. Results confirmed two related predictions, both based on attribution research: First, perceived gender-related differences in the outward display of an experience were generally greater than perceived gender-related differences in the subjective experience itself. Males and females, that is, were generally viewed as more alike in their internal feelings than in their overt behaviors. Second, perceived female/male differences in outward display varied more with the feeling elicited by the situation than perceived female/male differences in subjective experience. Specifically, subjects estimated that females would display communal, socially desirable feelings more than males and self-oriented, less desirable feelings less than males, but that females would experience both categories of feelings somewhat more intensely than males would experience them. In addition to confirming these two predictions, our results also indicated that the sex viewed as having greater hidden feelings—operationalized as the amount by which estimations of subjective experience exceeded estimations of display—also varied with the situation. With communal, highly desirable feelings, males were viewed as having greater hidden feelings, but with self-oriented, less desirable feelings, females were viewed as having greater hidden feelings. This pattern did not interact with gender of perceiver. The data, however, indicated that female perceivers tended to rate both males and females higher on measures of both experience and display than males did, and that male perceivers tended to perceive greater gender differences than females did.     

男女两性在文化震荡、心理健康及其关系中的差异比较

采用自编问卷对1555名30岁及以上被试受文化震荡的影响程度及其心理健康进行调查,分别探讨不同生活环境和环境相同但受教育程度不同的男女两性在两变量及其关系中的差异。结果表明:(1)总体上,男性报告的文化事件的主观影响明显比女性更积极,但其心理健康水平却明显低于女性;男女两性在文化震荡与心理健康之间均存在显著正相关,但具有不同特点。(2)不同生活环境和同一生活环境中不同受教育程度的男女两性在文化震荡、心理健康中均存在不同程度的差异;在这两变量间也均存在不同方面的显著正相关。     

Implications of sex and gender differences for self: Perceived advantages and disadvantages of being the other gender

Undergraduate students (34 females and 28 males/44 Caucasian, 16 African-American, 2 Asian) were asked to list the advantages and the disadvantages that they imagined they would experience if they were the other gender. A separate group of undergraduate raters then classified each of the statements into one of four categories designed to reflect social (social roles or social appearance) or physical differences (sexual or non-sexual physical differences) between the sexes. The number of responses each participant generated within each category served as the dependent variable. By far the largest number of responses pertained to the social roles category, and there were no participant gender differences for that category. Participant gender differences were observed in the social appearance and sexual physical difference categories, indicating males and females agreement that males have more advantages. Overall, females listed more advantages to a change in gender, while males indicated more disadvantages. Results are interpreted as providing insights into the personal and practical implications of differences between males and females.The authors would like to acknowledge Tiffany Capers and Millard McCluney for their assistance in collecting the data.