规则分类中刺激非规则特征突显条件下的样例效应

用Allan和Brooks的实验范式,采用2（学习轮次：5轮、10轮）×2（项目类型：旧项目、新项目）×2（项目匹配性质：正向匹配、反向匹配）混合实验设计,研究规则分类中非规则特征突显条件下的样例效应。结果发现,在学习5轮的条件下,获得了错误率上的样例效应,在学习5轮和10轮的条件下都没有获得反应时上的样例效应。实验得出样例效应的产生和突显的非规则特征有关的结论。     

简单结构刺激非规则特征突显条件下的样例效应

用变化了的Allen和Brooks的实验范式,采用2(学习轮次:5轮、10轮)×2(项目类型:旧项目、新项目)×2(项目匹配性质:正向匹配、反向匹配)混合实验设计,研究对4个特征刺激分类时非规则特征突显条件下的样例效应。结果发现,无论是错误率还是反应时都取得了明显的样例效应,但是学习时间的影响不明显。     

The importance of multiple exemplar instruction in the establishment of novel verbal behavior

According to traditional linguistic accounts language, and its generative nature, cannot be taught. From a behavior analytic perspective, language is like any other behavior; it is learned and amenable to change. Based upon Skinner's radical behavioral analysis of verbal behavior, specific procedures have been designed to promote novel verbal relations. However, despite the strength and utility of this approach, using behavioral principles to understand the generativity of language has been challenging. Dependent upon the specific theory (e.g., stimulus equivalence, relational frame theory, bidirectional naming) within the radical behavioral orientation, researchers arrange unique procedures to evaluate the variables responsible for this phenomenon. This paper presents the commonalities and differences of two procedures (i.e., multiple exemplar training, multiple exemplar instruction) with examples of research highlighting the use of both in producing generativity. Further, it describes how multiple exemplar instruction is independent from other procedures leading to this outcome, and concludes by providing recommendations for both research and practice.     

Evidence for task-dependent categorization in infancy

Two experiments compared infants' attention to the categorical distinction between people and animals in object-examining and sequential-touching tasks. In Experiment 1, 10- and 13-month-old infants distinguished between animals and people in an object-examining task. In this task, infants are familiarized with individual exemplars from one category, and then their response to exemplars from another category is measured. In Experiment 2, 13- and 16-month-old infants, but not 10-month-old infants, attended to the same distinction in a sequential-touching task. In this task, infants are presented with several exemplars from two categories simultaneously, and the order in which they touch those objects is assessed. Evaluation of infants' touching behavior in Experiment 2 also revealed developmental changes in how they approached this task. The combined results of these two experiments confirm the general trend reported in the literature and begin to provide insight into developmental changes that contribute to infants' ability to apply their categorization skills in different task contexts.     

The boundaries of self face perception: Response time distributions,perceptual categories,and decision weighting

The current study uses an RT distribution analysis approach to examine the self-bias in face categorization. In two experiments we systematically manipulated the decision boundaries between the self, familiar, and unfamiliar others in face categorization tasks. For the first time in studies of self-categorization we estimated parameters from ex-Gaussian fits of reaction time distributions in order to capture the influence of different boundaries on the latency distribution of the categorization responses. The results showed that the distribution of responses to self faces was stable regardless of the face context and the task demands, and changes in context only shifted the response distribution in time. In contrast, varying the decisions with familiar and unfamiliar faces changed the shape of the RT distributions in addition to shifting RTs in time. The results indicate that, in contrast to our perception of familiar and unfamiliar faces of other people, self face perception forms a unique perceptual category unaffected by shifts in context and task demands.     

Effects of exemplar training in exclusion responding on auditory-visual discrimination tasks with children with autism

In Experiment 1 with 7 autistic children (3 to 6 years old), auditory-visual exclusion was tested with four unknown word-item pairs for each child. One child demonstrated exclusion and positive learning outcomes unequivocally with the four auditory-visual relations. Three children demonstrated exclusion, though inconsistently, and failed to demonstrate positive learning outcomes. The remaining 3 children failed to demonstrate exclusion; therefore, the learning outcome test was omitted. The 6 children who failed to demonstrate exclusion or positive learning outcomes participated in the second experiment. In Experiment 2, nonreinforced exclusion trials with four new unknown word-item pairs were included in trial blocks that also contained reinforced exclusion trials with the unknown exemplars from Experiment 1. Five children demonstrated exclusion with the new word-item pairs, and 4 of these demonstrated positive learning outcomes in further tests. One child demonstrated some limited but inconsistent improvement in exclusion and was not tested for learning outcomes. The data suggest that contemporaneous presentation of multiple examples of reinforced exclusion facilitated nonreinforced exclusion performances and that the resulting reduction in errors was critical in producing accurate learning outcomes with the new word-item discriminations.     

The stability and flexibility of spatial categories

Four experiments examined the flexibility and stability with which children and adults organize locations into categories based on their spatiotemporal experience with locations. Seven-, 9-, 11-year-olds, and adults learned the locations of 20 objects in an open, square box. During learning, participants experienced the locations in four spatiotemporally defined groups (i.e., four sets of nearby locations learned together in time). At test, participants attempted to place the objects in the correct locations without the aid of the dots marking the locations. Children and adults displaced the objects toward the corners of the box consistent with the organization they experienced during learning, suggesting that they used spatiotemporal experience to organize the locations into groups. Importantly, the pattern of organization remained the same following a long delay for all four age groups, demonstrating stability. For adults, this organization shifted after a new pattern of spatiotemporal experience was introduced, suggesting that adults' categories based on spatiotemporal experience are quite flexible. Children only exhibited flexibility when the new pattern of spatiotemporal organization was consistent with available perceptual cues, demonstrating that the flexibility with which children organize locations into categories is intimately tied to both remembered and perceptual sources of information.     

Getting scarred and winning lotteries: effects of exemplar cuing and statistical format on imagining low‐probability events

Three experiments tested the exemplar cuing and frequency format accounts of how the ‘imaginability’ of low‐probability events is enhanced. The experiments manipulated imaginability by varying the statistics used to describe negative (e.g. being scarred as a result of laser surgery) and positive (e.g. winning a lottery) low‐probability events. The results strongly supported the frequency format account, whereby imaginability is enhanced through the use of frequency formats for conveying statistical information (e.g. 20 out of 2000 as opposed to 0.01%). However, only limited support was found for exemplar cuing (EC) theory. Overall the results support the claim that the imaginability of outcomes plays a key role in thinking about low‐probability events, but question the mechanisms specified by EC theory for mediating such effects. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evidence of rapid correlation‐based perceptual category learning by 4‐month‐olds

Young infants are very sensitive to feature distribution information in the environment. However, existing work suggests that they do not make use of correlation information to form certain perceptual categories until at least 7 months of age. We suggest that the failure to use correlation information is a by‐product of familiarization procedures that encourage infants to over encode individual exemplars rather than relations across exemplars. By changing the exemplar presentation regime to one in which exemplars are rapidly (2 s durations) and repeatedly presented we find that 4‐month‐olds can form perceptual categories on the basis of feature correlation information. In addition, this ability emerges rapidly between 114 and 134 days. We argue that the ability to process correlation information is present very early on but that the demonstration of that ability in categorization tasks is mediated by the demands of the task the infant is tested with. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Immediate and long-term retention of basic-level categories in 24-month-olds

This study assessed the effect of presenting single versus multiple exemplars of basic-level categories on 24-month-olds' long-term memory for categorical information. Sixty-four infants were tested in a paired-comparison recognition memory paradigm immediately and one week after familiarization with basic-level categories. Infants were randomly assigned to one of two familiarization conditions and one of two test conditions. In one familiarization condition (Varied Exemplar), they briefly viewed four different exemplars of each of 16 basic-level categories. In the other familiarization condition (Single Exemplar), they viewed only one instance of each category on four different trials. Test trials consisted of either an exemplar seen during familiarization (Familiar-Exemplar Test) or novel intracategory exemplar (Unfamiliar-Exemplar Test) paired with a stimulus from a novel category. Both immediately following familiarization and one week later, infants looked longer at test stimuli from the novel category irrespective of familiarization or test condition.     

Detection of gender-related categories by 10-month-old infants

Thirty-two 10-month-olds completed an habituation procedure where a male or female face was paired with a specific object. Results reveal 10-month-olds can form categories based on correlations among attributes of social information. Basic processes involved in gender role formation are present in 10-month-olds.     

The role of goal categories in person impression

After being primed by family terms, or by socially neutral terms, female subjects were provided with characteristics of several women. The characteristics described a target woman in a mother/wife role or in a career woman role and were related to goals, or to means-to-goals typical for these roles. In two studies it appeared that charccteristics with goals, as opposed to means-to-goals information resulted in a better memory for the input (Study 1) and in more elaborated and confident impressions (Study 2). This finding was strongest when there was a congruence between the priming and the characteristics, i.e., when family priming was followed by the family relevant characteristics. The data supported the hypothesis that mental representations structuring the formation of impressions in natural contexts have an action-oriented character, with actor's goal categories as the dominant elements.     

The role of exemplar typicality and encoding strategies in category retrieval-induced forgetting

Selective retrieval practice of category exemplars often impairs the recall of related items, a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). In Experiment 1 the role of item typicality (high, low) and presentation format of category exemplars (random, grouped) were analysed, while in Experiment 2 two encoding strategies (inter and intracategory) to modulate RIF were tested. Exemplar typicality was the critical factor underlying RIF. Competition during retrieval practice rendered RIF in the typical exemplars, but RIF did not appear when the exemplars were low typicality. The greater impairment of strong exemplars is in line with the inhibitory account of RIF and the notion of interference dependence. Inhibition appeared with random and grouped presentations suggesting that presentation format of the exemplars is not a critical factor in modulating RIF in a category-cued recall task. Distinctive processing instructions using sentences that connected items from different categories (intercategory strategy) and integration instructions by using size to organise the exemplars within categories (intracategory strategy) easily avoided competition and the need of inhibition processes in recall.     

知觉负荷对面孔多重社会范畴加工的影响

为了考察知觉负荷理论对于面孔多重社会范畴加工机制解释的可能性, 我们采用两个反应时实验探讨了姓名判断是否会在不同的知觉负荷条件下受到面孔性别与种族信息的影响。实验1通过侧抑制范式考察姓名判断中面孔种族引发的干扰效应是否会受到知觉负荷水平的调节。结果发现, 姓名判断的反应时间会随着负荷水平的提高显著延长, 即面孔种族引发的干扰效应不会随着负荷水平的提高而消失。实验2继续通过侧抑制范式考察了姓名判断中面孔性别引发的干扰效应是否会在不同知觉负荷水平下出现差异。结果发现, 在低负荷水平下, 个体在不一致条件下的反应时长于一致条件下的反应时, 并且被试会倾向于将中性名字的性别判断为与面孔的性别一致。在高负荷水平下, 个体的反应时在一致和不一致条件下没有显著差异, 并且被试对中性名字的性别判断属于随机猜测水平。上述结果表明, 种族加工具有自下而上的强制性加工的特点; 性别加工是受到注意资源调节的自上而下加工, 具有一定的灵活性。     

On the existence of prelinguistic categories: A case study

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether infants spontaneously form categories during the prelinguistic period and whether these categories are based on the same principles as adult basic-level categories. A new methodology, using a functional use measure as the determinant of category composition, was employed in a case study of one infant's horn category. Results indicated that this category met Schlesinger's (1982) criteria for a prelinguistic category and that the category was based on similarity relationships, as adult categories are.     

The role of functional information for infant categorization

This report examines whether knowledge about function influences the formation of artifact categories in 11-12- month old infants. Using an object-examination task, a set of artificial stimuli was presented that could either be grouped according to overall similarity or according to similarity in one functionally relevant part. Experiment 1 revealed that infants categorized the objects according to overall similarity but not part similarity under control conditions. Experiment 2 showed that after having seen the experimenter demonstrating the functional use of the critical part, infants later categorized the stimuli according to part similarity. When the same actions were performed without producing any effect, infants failed to categorize according to the critical part. This set of findings suggests that 11-12-month old infants use functional information as a cue to categorization.     

Infants' formation and use of categories to segregate objects

Four- and-a-half-month-old infants' (N = 100) category formation and use was studied in a series of five experiments. For each experiment, the test events featured a display composed of a cylinder and a box. Previous research showed that this display is not clearly parsed as a single unit or as two separate units by infants of this age. Immediately prior to testing, infants were shown a set of category exemplars. Knowledge about this category could help infants disambiguate the test display, which contained a novel exemplar of this category. Clear interpretation of the test display as composed of two separate units (as indicated by infants' longer looking at the move-together than at the move-apart test event) was taken as evidence of category formation and use. In Experiments 1 and 5, infants' prior experience with a set of three different boxes that were similar to the test box facilitated their segregation of the test display. Experiment 2 showed that three different exemplars are necessary: prior experience with any two of the three boxes used in Experiment 1 did not facilitate infants' segregation of the test display. Experiment 3 showed that variability in the exemplar set is necessary: prior experience with three identical boxes did not facilitate infants' segregation of the test display. Experiment 4 showed that under these conditions of very brief prior exposure, similarity between the exemplar set and test box is necessary: prior experience with three different boxes that were not very similar to the test box did not facilitate infants' segregation of the test display. Together, these findings suggest that: (a) number of exemplars, variability, and similarity in the exemplar set are important for infants' category formation, and (b) infants use their category knowledge to determine the boundaries of the objects in a display.     

The use of the political categories of Brexiter and Remainer in online comments about the EU referendum

In June 2016, the United Kingdom held a referendum on EU membership; 52% of those who voted, voted to leave, and 48% voted to remain. During the referendum campaign, two identities emerged: “Brexiter” and “Remainer,” which remained salient post‐referendum. This study explores how the categories of Brexiter and Remainer were deployed by posters online. Data comprise comment threads collected from four online newspapers both during the campaign and after the vote, which focus on the Brexit campaign promise: “We send £350m a week to the EU. Let's fund our NHS instead.” We draw on membership categorization analysis and discursive psychology to analyse when categories were made salient and what responses to the invocation of categories were. Analysis revealed that posters explicitly categorize the out‐group and in doing so implicitly define their group. Posters resisted other political identities when attributed to them in relation to the referendum. The analysis shows how Brexiter and Remainer are new, albeit contested, political categories and identities in their own right, with other political identities resisted when used. The paper highlights implications for the political system in the United Kingdom and for social divisions within U.K. society.     

The role of familiarity in implicit memory effects: the case of exemplar activation

The present study investigates how person‐based representations stored in memory can influence subsequent information processing, depending upon subjective states during recollection of those representations. The experiment consisted of two phases. In the first phase, participants incidentally learned the gender category membership of various exemplars. Exemplars were presented in the form of forename–surname associations. In the second phase, the same surnames were used as primes in a name‐completion task. Results showed that the influence of the primes differed in relation to the exemplars' status in memory, as assessed by a recognition memory task. Only when the surnames looked familiar, but were not identifiable, an implicit effect of the exemplars' original category membership emerged, selectively influencing gender congruent name‐completions. Results are discussed in terms of attribution processes underlying the importance of the feelings of familiarity, and the need to devote more attention to the study of phenomenological factors in human memory. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.