Perceived aggression in sports and its relation to willingness to participate and perceived risk of injury

The purpose of this study was three-fold: assess relationships among perceived hostile aggression, instrumental aggression, and assertion for a set of collegiate sports, categorize the sports by rated aggression, and present relationships of aggression with ratings of likelihood of career-ending injuries, personal willingness to participate, and the perceived desirability of participation in the sports by others. The sports were rated on the variables by 285 undergraduates enrolled in psychology courses in a large private university in the western USA. Mean age for men was 23.7 yr. (SD = 2.3) and for women 21.3 yr. (SD = 2.7). A 4 (rating category) x 16 (sport) repeated-measures analysis of variance showed significant main and interaction effects. The sports were classified according to level of aggression in post hoc analysis. Perceived risk of a career-ending injury was linearly related to aggregate aggression, whereas willingness to participate and desirability of the sport for others had quadratic relationships to both aggregate aggression and risk of career-ending injury.     

Increasing perceived variability reduces prejudice and discrimination

We examined whether increasing individuals' perceived variability of an out-group reduces prejudice and discrimination toward its members. In a series of 4 laboratory and field experiments, we attracted participants' attention to either the homogeneity or the heterogeneity of members of an out-group, and then measured their attitudes or behaviors. Perceived variability was manipulated by making subgroups salient, by portraying the out-group members as having diverse opinions, by making salient that out-group members have different characteristics, or by asking participants to think about differences among out-group members. Prejudice and discrimination were measured in terms of self-reported attitudes, distribution of rewards, helping an out-group confederate, and evaluation of an out-group candidate in a simulated hiring decision. In all experiments, perceived variability decreased prejudice and discrimination. This effect may be due to the fact that perceived variability decreases the role of group membership in the production of attitudes and behaviors toward other individuals.     

Perceived psychosocial benefits associated with perceived restorative potential of wilderness river-rafting trips

Analysis of the restorative experiences and psychosocial benefits of wilderness river rafting trips of varying difficulty with 186 Canadian participants of different ages supported the restorative potential of natural settings for all age groups as measured by the Perceived Restorativeness Scale. The two-factor structure (General Restorativeness and Coherence) was confirmed. Significant associations were found between scores on the General Restorative subscale and perceived psychosocial benefits (relaxation, nature appreciation or kinship, and physical fitness or achievement) and positive affect. However, the findings associated with the Coherence subscale were not conclusive.     

社会逆境感知对大学生攻击行为的影响:反刍思维与领悟社会支持的作用

为探讨社会逆境感知对大学生攻击行为的影响机制,选取577名大学生为被试,采用社会逆境感知问卷、大学生攻击行为量表、反刍思维量表及领悟社会支持量表进行测试。结果表明：（1）社会逆境感知对大学生攻击行为有显著的正向影响,并间接地通过反刍思维对大学生攻击行为产生作用;（2）领悟社会支持在社会逆境感知对大学生反刍思维的影响中起显著的调节作用,具体而言,在低领悟社会支持水平下,社会逆境感知对大学生反刍思维的预测作用更强,而在高领悟社会支持水平下,社会逆境感知对大学生反刍思维的预测作用不显著。     

Environmental context influences visually perceived distance

What properties determine visually perceived space? We discovered that the perceived relative distances of familiar objects in natural settings depended in unexpected ways onthe surrounding visual field. Observers bisected egocentric distances in a lobby, in a hallway, and on an open lawn. Three key findings were the following: (1) Perceived midpoints were too far from the observer, which is the opposite of the common foreshortening effect. (2) This antiforeshortening constant error depended on the environmental setting--greatest in the lobby and hall but nonsignificant on the lawn. (3) Context also affected distance discrimination; variability was greater in the hall than in the lobby or on the lawn. A second experiment replicated these findings, using a method of constant stimuli. Evidently, both the accuracy and the precision of perceived distance depend on subtle properties of the surrounding environment.     

Advisory working alliance, perceived English proficiency, and acculturative stress

The aim of this study was to examine the moderators of (a) general or cross-cultural advisory working alliances and (b) perceived English proficiency on the association between acculturative stress and psychological distress. A total of 143 East Asian international students completed an online survey. Results from a hierarchical regression indicated significant three-way interactions of (a) General Advisory Working Alliances × Perceived English Proficiency × Acculturative Stress on Psychological Distress and (b) Cross-Cultural Advisory Working Alliances × Perceived English Proficiency × Acculturative Stress on Psychological Distress. Specifically, the present results indicated that acculturative stress was significantly associated with psychological distress only when students perceived lower English proficiency and had a stronger general or cross-cultural advisory working alliance. However, acculturative stress was not significantly related to psychological distress when these students perceived lower English proficiency and had a weaker advisory working alliance (i.e., general or cross-cultural). In addition, acculturative stress was also not significantly related to psychological distress when these students perceived higher English proficiency and had a stronger or weaker advisory working alliance (i.e., general or cross-cultural).     

歧视知觉对留守青少年攻击行为的影响：多重中介效应分析

为考察歧视知觉对留守青少年攻击行为的影响及其作用机制,采用问卷法对662名留守中学生进行调查。结果表明：（1）歧视知觉、抑郁、愤怒、道德推脱与攻击行为两两显著正相关。（2）歧视知觉不能直接影响留守青少年攻击行为,但存在四条显著的间接路径：愤怒的简单中介作用;道德推脱的简单中介作用;抑郁和道德推脱的链式中介作用;愤怒和道德推脱的链式中介作用。因此,抑郁、愤怒和道德推脱在歧视知觉与留守青少年攻击行为之间起多重中介作用。     

Overt and relational aggression and perceived popularity: developmental differences in concurrent and prospective relations

Relations of overt and relational aggression with perceived popularity among children and early adolescents were examined in 2 studies (Ns = 607 and 1,049). Among older youths, positive concurrent relations found between overt aggression and perceived popularity became nonsignificant when relational aggression was controlled, whereas positive associations found between relational aggression and perceived popularity held when overt aggression was controlled. Aggression and perceived popularity were not positively related for the younger participants. The 2nd study also examined the temporal ordering of these relations over 6 months. For older girls, positive relations between relational aggression and perceived popularity were bidirectional. For older boys, relational aggression did not predict increased perceived popularity, but perceived popularity predicted increased relational aggression. Implications for intervention are discussed.     

Nationalism, Internationalism, and Perceived UN Irrelevance: Mediators of Relationships Between Authoritarianism and Support for Military Aggression as Part of the War on Terror

The present research tests a model of predicted relationships among right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), social dominance orientation (SDO), nationalism, internationalism, perceived United Nations (UN) irrelevance, and support for the use of aggressive military action against countries perceived to support terrorism. In the hypothesized model, nationalism and internationalism were expected to mediate the relationship between authoritarian dispositions and support for aggressive military policies, while internationalism was expected to predict perceived UN irrelevance. Perceived UN irrelevance was also expected to predict support for military aggression directly. Across samples of community adults, hypotheses were largely supported, with only minor changes being made to the proposed model in order to improve model fit.     

Modifying perceived variability: four laboratory and field experiments show the effectiveness of a ready‐to‐be‐used prejudice intervention

We examined whether increasing individuals' perceived variability of an out‐group reduces prejudice and discrimination toward members of this group. In a series of four laboratory and field experiments, we attracted participants' attention to the heterogeneity of members of an out‐group (or not), and then measured their attitudes or behaviors. Perceived variability was manipulated by portraying the out‐group members as having diverse socio‐demographic characteristics and different personality traits and preferences. Prejudice and discrimination were measured in terms of self‐reported prejudice, stereotyping, in‐group bias, social distance, and willingness to do something for the minority group under consideration. In all experiments, perceived variability decreased prejudice and discrimination.     

Inferences about the morality of an aggressor: the role of perceived motive

The research investigated perceivers' inferences about the morality of target persons who engaged in aggressive behavior. Across several experiments, inferences about the morality of an aggressor were based more on the perceived motives of the target than on the presence of facilitating situational forces. For example, when a target's aggression was facilitated by personal rewards for aggression (instrumental aggression), perceivers inferred more negative motives and attributed lower morality to the target than when the target's aggression was facilitated by situational provocation (reactive aggression). The results suggest that perceived motives play an important role in dispositional inference and pose a problem for models that focus primarily on perceived causality, assumptions about base rates (consensus), or diagnosticity.     

青少年早期攻击和违纪行为的关系：受欢迎度的调节作用

以1755名初中一年级青少年为被试考察青少年早期个体攻击和违纪行为之间的关系,并对受欢迎度的调节作用进行了检验。结果表明,（1）在青少年早期,身体攻击能正向预测违纪行为,而关系攻击不能。（2）个体的受欢迎度能够调节身体攻击与违纪行为间的关系,具体表现为身体攻击对不受欢迎个体违纪行为的影响比对受欢迎个体的影响更大。     

Motion parallax driven by head movements: conditions for visual stability, perceived depth, and perceived concomitant motion

Yoking the movement of the stimulus on the screen to the movement of the head, we examined visual stability and depth perception as a function of head-movement velocity and parallax. In experiment 1, for different head velocities, observers adjusted the parallax to find (a) the depth threshold and (b) the concomitant-motion threshold. Between these thresholds, depth was seen with no perceived motion. In experiment 2, for different head velocities, observers adjusted the parallax to produce the same perceived depth. A slower head movement required a greater parallax to produce the same perceived depth as faster head movements. In experiment 3, observers reported the perceived depth for different parallax magnitudes. Perceived depth covaried with smaller parallax without motion perception, but began to decrease with larger parallax and concomitant motion was seen. Only motion was seen with the larger parallax.     

Moderators of the association between relational aggression and perceived popularity

This study, which involved two waves of measurement over a period of 12 months, examined first whether the positive association between relational aggression and two types of high status was moderated by social self-efficacy, leadership, cooperation, and peer sociability. It was expected that relational aggressors are most likely to gain high peer group status when they are also self-efficacious or prosocial. Second, this study examined the reciprocal association between relational aggression and high peer status. It was anticipated that relational aggression would contribute to higher perceived popularity and vice versa. Third, we also examined and hypothesized reciprocal effects between social self-efficacy, leadership, cooperation, and peer sociability and perceived popularity. Youth were 540 13-15 year olds participating in Grade 7 (Time 1) and again 1 year later in Grade 8 (Time 2). Data were collected from peers, teachers, and the adolescents themselves. Consistent with expectations, relationally aggressive adolescents high in social self-efficacy, leadership, cooperation, and peer sociability were higher in status than relationally aggressive individuals with low levels of these characteristics. In addition, relational aggression and perceived popularity reciprocally influenced each other. Finally, social self-efficacy, leadership, cooperation, and peer sociability reciprocally influenced and were influenced by perceived popularity.     

Grooming the Naked Ape: Do Perceptions of Disease and Aggression Vulnerability Influence Grooming Behaviour in Humans? A Comparative Ethological Perspective

The study considers effects of the psychological perceptions of disease and conspecific aggression on the grooming behaviour of Homo sapiens. Measures employed included: self-reported grooming frequency and perceived vulnerability to conspecific aggression questionnaires, which were developed for this study; and the 15-item Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale PVD (Duncan et al., Personality and Individual Differences 47:541–546, 2009). Participants were a self-selecting sample of 129 females and 39 males, aged between 16 and 63. It was found that individuals scoring highly in Perceived Vulnerability to Disease reported higher frequencies of autogrooming and lower frequencies of allogrooming. Individuals who scored highly in Perceived Vulnerability to Conspecific Aggression reported higher frequencies of autogrooming, however no significant difference was found in terms of allogrooming frequency. The study represents an initial attempt at considering psychological perceptions of disease and aggression on human grooming behaviours from a comparative ethological perspective.     

Intergroup aggression: its predictors and distinctness from in-group bias

Investigated predictors of intergroup aggression and its relations to in-group bias. In a questionnaire, 156 Israeli adults reported perceptions of their own religious group and of the ultraorthodox Jewish out-group and expressed aggression toward the ultraorthodox (opposing institutions that serve their needs, supporting acts harmful to them, and opposing interaction with them). Respondents showed in-group favoritism in trait evaluations, but this bias was unrelated to aggression. Perceived inter-group conflict of interests, the postulated motivator of aggression, predicted it strongly. The effects of conflict on aggression were partially mediated by 2 indexes of dehumanizing the out-group (perceived value dissimilarity and trait inhumanity) and by 1 index of probable empathy with it (perceived in-group-out-group boundary permeability). These variables related to aggression more strongly among persons who identified highly with their in-group. The variables also mediated the effects of religious group affiliation on aggression. The value dissimilarity finding supports derivations from belief congruence theory.     

Relative contributions of perceived mattering to parents and friends in predicting adolescents' psychological well-being

Perceived mattering is the psychological tendency to perceive the self as significant to specific other people. The central goal of this study was to examine whether adolescents' perceived mattering across social spheres (parents and friends) is addtive or compensatory in predicting adolescents' psychological well-being. Tests of the relative importance of adolescents' perceived mattering to parents and friends for psychological well-being were conducted using data from two convenience samples. Study 1 participants were, on the average, 17.5 yr. old and living in rural northwestern United States (N=128, 50% male, n=64; 50% female, n=64). Study 2 participants, on the average, were 16.9 yr. old, from a suburban western Canadian region (N=532, 51.4% male, n=273; 48.6% female, n=259). Hierarchical regression analysed with indicators of self-concept and behavioral misconduct as dependent variables used perceived mattering to parents and perceived mattering to friends and the interaction between these two variables as independent variables. Perceived mattering in both social spheres seemed the optimal condition for adolescents. Perceived mattering to friends "added" to perceived mattering to parents in explaining variance in assessments of psychological well-being in both studies.     

Optimism,perceived control over stress,and coping

To examine the ability of the expectancy-based personality dimensions dispositional optimism and perceived control over stress to predict the ways in which people characteristically attempt to cope with stress, 420 undergraduate students completed the Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier and Carver, 1985), a measure of perceived control over stress, and the dispositional version of the COPE Inventory (Carver, Scheier and Weintraub, 1989). The results revealed a modest but reliable positive correlation between optimism and the perceived control measure. Principal-components analysis of the COPE revealed a factor structure which was generally in accord with prior research. Optimism was positively correlated with active coping and positive reinterpretation, and negatively correlated with focusing on and venting of emotion. Perceived control over stress was negatively correlated with behavioural disengagement. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Expectations and perceptions at school transitions: The role of peer status and aggression

This study integrated research on aggression, peer status, and social and academic functioning across the middle- and high-school transitions. We examined how peer status and aggression are related to adolescents' expectations about their academic and social functioning in a new school system before the transition into that system, and their perceived academic and social functioning after the transition. Social preference, perceived popularity, overt and relational aggression, and social and academic expectations were assessed in Grades 5 and 8; identical peer status and aggression constructs and perceived social and academic functioning were assessed in Grades 6 and 9. Results indicated moderate correlations between adolescents' social and academic expectations and perceived functioning across both school transitions. Girls reported higher social and academic functioning than boys did in most cases. Perceived popularity was consistently positively associated with academic and social expectations for middle and high school, whereas social preference was associated with perceived social functioning in both middle school and high school. The link between aggression and outcome variables varied by age and was moderated by gender and peer status.