A Logic for Information Systems

A conception of an information system has been introduced by Pawlak. The study has been continued in works of Pawlak and Orlowska and in works of Vakarelov. They had proposed some basic relations and had constructed a formal system of a modal logic that describes the relations and some of their Boolean combinations. Our work is devoted to a generalization of this approach. A class of relation systems and a complete calculus construction method for these systems are proposed. As a corollary of our main result, our paper contains a solution of a Vakarelov's problem: how to construct a formal system that describes all the Boolean combinations of the basic relations.     

决策与推理的双系统——启发式系统和分析系统

近来,在决策与推理的研究中,研究者提出了双系统作用模型：基于直觉的启发式系统和基于理性的分析系统。启发式系统加工速度较快,不占用或占用很少的心理资源,容易受背景相似性、刻板印象的影响;分析系统加工速度慢,占用较多的心理资源,遵从逻辑和规则,而且两个系统有不同进化历史和神经基础。该文根据已有的相关研究,综述了双系统在决策与推理中可能的作用机制、相互关系、个体差异,同时指出了目前研究存在的不足     

Mental animation: inferring motion from static displays of mechanical systems.

Reaction-time and eye-fixation data are analyzed to investigate how people infer the kinematics of simple mechanical systems (pulley systems) from diagrams showing their static configuration. It is proposed that this mental animation process involves decomposing the representation of a pulley system into smaller units corresponding to the machine components and animating these components in a sequence corresponding to the causal sequence of events in the machine's operation. Although it is possible for people to make inferences against the chain of causality in the machine, these inferences are more difficult, and people have a preference for inferences in the direction of causality. The mental animation process reflects both capacity limitations and limitations of mechanical knowledge.     

Privacy and large-scale personal data systems

Large-scale personal data retrieval systems must be expected to come into very general use. Despite the obvious opportunities that these systems offer, they may also involve important hazards for individual and organizational privacy. It is imperative, if privacy interests are to be protected, that stringent protective devices be included in each information system of this type. These devices should involve limitations upon the scope and character of the data that are collected, their dissemination, and their use. They must be tailored to the problems presented by each information system.     

Challenges in Developing a Cultural Evidence‐Based Psychotherapy in the USA: Suggestions for International Studies

In this article, we underscore some of the cultural challenges and limitations of the evidence‐based psychotherapy (EBP) utilised within the USA with the hope that these problems will be avoided or ameliorated in Australia and other countries. Although the EBP research is very diverse and complex, we categorise this fast‐growing literature using a threefold classification system that underscores culture. This classification system is proposed to examine the influence of culture on EBPs. The three categories used are (a) universal evidence‐based psychotherapies or universal psychotherapies, (b) race and ethnic minority evidence‐based psychotherapies or racial/ethnic psychotherapies, and (c) cultural evidence‐based psychotherapies or cultural psychotherapies. After each category is described, its benefits and limitations are discussed, emphasising implications for culturally diverse and international studies. We conclude with suggestions to promote the advancement of a more effective and inclusive cultural EBP in which researchers from different countries can collaborate and learn from each other.     

Theoretical note: Coordinate systems in visual word recognition

Marr and Nishihara (1978) have made certain recommendations about how representations postulated in a theory of visual information processing should be specified. Using this scheme the paper discusses representations which might be postulated in a model of visual word recognition. A representation is specified in terms of a set of primitives (e.g., word identities or visual features) in combination with a coordinate system. The coordinate systems considered are retinal, spatial (e.g., position on page) word-centred (position in word) and sentence-centred (position in sentence).

Various combinations of primitives and coordinate systems are considered along with how to decide which combinations are actually generated in the process of fluent reading. A tentative model is put forward in which a single processing stage, which starts anew after each saccade, generates a representation with word identities as its primitives and sentence-centred coordinates. Evidence to support such a model which has no intermediate representation with spatial coordinates is briefly reviewed.     

An item response model with internal restrictions on item difficulty

An IRT model based on the Rasch model is proposed for composite tasks, that is, tasks that are decomposed into subtasks of different kinds. There is one subtask for each component that is discerned in the composite tasks. A component is a generic kind of subtask of which the subtasks resulting from the decomposition are specific instantiations with respect to the particular composite tasks under study. The proposed model constrains the difficulties of the composite tasks to be linear combinations of the difficulties of the corresponding subtask items, which are estimated together with the weights used in the linear combinations, one weight for each kind of subtask. Although the model does not belong to the exponential family, its parameters can be estimated using conditional maximum likelihood estimation. The approach is demonstrated with an application to spelling tasks. We thank Eric Maris for his helpful comments.     

An analysis of independence and interactions of brain substrates that subserve multiple attributes, memory systems, and underlying processes

It is proposed that memory is organized into event-based, knowledge-based, and rule-based memory systems. Furthermore, each system is composed of the same set of multiple attributes and characterized by a set of process oriented operating characteristics that are mapped onto multiple neural regions and interconnected neural circuits. Based on this theoretical model of memory, it is possible to investigate the independence and interaction among brain regions between any two systems for any of the proposed attributes or processes. This applies also to the investigation of independence and interactions between any two attributes within a system and between processes associated with a system for any of the proposed attributes. In this article, research evidence is presented to suggest that there are both dissociations and interactions between the hippocampus and caudate nucleus in mediating spatial and response attributes within the event-based memory system, between the hippocampus and the parietal cortex in subserving the spatial attribute within the event-based and knowledge-based memory systems, and between the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex in subserving the spatial attribute within the event-based and rule-based memory systems.     

Conversion and the Family: Chinese Hare Krishnas

The multi-cultural and multi-religious context of the globalised world often results in unlikely interactions between the triad of people, cultures, and religion. The result may be that people embrace divergent systems of beliefs. This article explores the dynamics of such interaction within the private domain of the family, when ethnic Chinese adopt an alien faith, that of the Hare Krishna. Four typologies of interactions between convert and family members are proposed, ranging from the most volatile to the most harmonious. These are categorised as contentious, neutral, accommodative, and supportive. The combinations of factors that lead to each type of interaction, such as family–convert relationship, religious identity of family member, residence of the convert, family members’ perception of the Hare Krishna, and the extent of external practices adopted by the converts, are discussed. In particular, qualitative comparative analysis is applied to investigate how these variables combine to lead to each typology.     

Comparing the EthoVision 2.3 system and a new computerized multitracking prototype system to measure the swimming behavior in fry fish

Coming from the framework of unmarked fry tracking, we compared the capacities, advantages, and disadvantages of two recent video tracking systems: EthoVision 2.3 and a new prototype of multitracking. The EthoVision system has proved to be impressive for tracking a fry using the detection by gray scaling. Detection by subtraction has given less accurate results. Our video multitracking system is able to detect and track more than 100 unmarked fish by gray scaling technique. It permits an analysis at the group level as well as at the individual level. The multitracking program is able to attribute a number to each fish and to follow each one for the whole duration of the track. Our system permits the analysis of the movement of each individual, even if the trajectories of two fish cross each other. This is possible thanks to the theoretical estimation of the trajectory of each fish, which can be compared with the real trajectory (analysis with feedback). However, the period of the track is limited for our system (about 1 min), whereas EthoVision is able to track for numerous hours. In spite of these limitations, these two systems allow an almost continuous automatic sampling of the movement behaviors during the track.     

Multi-layer architecture for adaptive fuzzy inference system with a large number of input features

The Sugeno adaptive fuzzy neural network using training data is a good approximation to model different systems. The large number of adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) input features is a major challenge in using ANFIS and is not applicable with increased parameters. We present a solution for many input features solving modular problems; we created a multi-layer architecture of SUB-ANFIS (MLA-ANFIS) for this purpose. Different topologies were created with various combinations of multiple input features, and an error indicator was calculated for each combination of topologies. Finally, the best topology was chosen among the states with the highest possible performance. We implemented a multi-layered approach based on 365-day concrete compressive strength data with eight input features and the optimized MLA-ANFIS topology (5-3-1) for this purpose from different ANFIS topologies and neural networks. Finally, the results from five other datasets prove the impact of the proposed MLA-ANFIS approach compared to the neural network method.     

Loving and angry? Happy and sad? Understanding and reporting of mixed emotions in mother–child relationships by 6‐ to 12‐year‐olds

The Evaluative Space Model of emotions allows for the coactivation of positive‐appetitive and negative‐avoidant systems, but few studies have examined mixed emotions in child development. Existing research suggests children's understanding of opposite valence emotion combinations emerges by approximately 11 years of age. However, it is not yet clear whether various opposite valence combinations are understood at different ages, nor whether children can understand them in others before they have experienced such mixed emotions themselves. Semi‐structured interviews with 97 children investigated whether they regarded six combinations of opposite valence mixed emotions as possible, could provide reasons for them, and report their own experience of each in the context of mother–child relationships. Both understanding that such combinations are possible and ability to provide reasons for them increased after age 6 and up to age 11, but were still incomplete in 12‐year‐olds. Understanding of different opposite valence combinations developed at different rates. At each age, fewer children who showed understanding of these combinations in others reported having had a similar experience themselves. The findings suggest a need to systematically examine a range of mixed emotions in order to develop a comprehensive theory of the development of mixed emotion understanding. They also suggest extending research into adolescence.     

A multimodal data collection tool using REALbasic and Mac OS X

This project uses REALbasic 3.5 in the Mac OS X environment for development of a configuration tool that builds a data collection procedure for investigating the effectiveness of sonified graphs. The advantage of using REALbasic with the Mac OS X system is that it provides rapid development of stimulus presentation, direct recording of data to files, and control over other procedural issues. The program can be made to run natively on the new Mac OS X system, older Mac OS systems, and Windows (98SE, ME, 2000 PRO). With modification, similar programs could be used to present any number of visual/auditory stimulus combinations, complete with questions for each stimulus.     

Toward an empirically based parameter selection for time-sampling observation systems

The measurement error of time-sampling observation systems, used to estimate the frequencyof behavioral events, was analyzed by means of a five-factor design, computer simulation experiment. The first three factors represented response parameters: the relative frequency and duration of the behavior and the pattern of response distribution. For each combination of frequency, pattern, and duration, five simulated behavior events were generated within a simulated observation period of 900 sec. A total of 21 different time-sampling systems was employed. As a fourth factor three different observe and record lengths were included (6, 12, and 60 sec). In addition, there were seven different ratios of “observe” to “record” interval length (5∶1, 3∶1, 2∶1, 1∶1, 1∶2, 1∶3, and 1∶5) representing the fifth factor. Thus, 21 time-sampling systems scanned a total of 120 different behavior simulations from 24 types of behavior parameter combinations. The data were analyzed by means of a five-factor (2 × 3 × 4 × 3 × 7) analysis of variance with repeated measures on two factors. The study demonstrated that time sampling leads to high average measurement errors, which are determined by complex interrelationships among a variety of variables. Choosing a time-sampling system arbitrarily may lead to highly erroneous data. It was also shown, however, that time-sampling systems have the potential to yield very accurate results. An empirical selection procedure for time-sampling intervals is proposed to minimize measurement error. Exemplary tables are presented from which time-sampling parameters can be chosen given that the rate, duration, and pattern of occurrence of a behavior to be observed are known.     

Demystifying Intuition: What It Is,What It Does,and How It Does It

Definitions of intuition are discussed and two working definitions are proposed. This is followed by a list of eight unresolved problems concerning intuition. It is suggested that all of these problems can be resolved by cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST), a dual-process theory of personality according to which people process information with two systems, an experiential/intuitive system that is an associative learning system that humans share with other animals and a uniquely human verbal reasoning system. Intuition is considered to be a subsystem of the experiential/ intuitive system that operates by exactly the same principles and attributes but has narrower boundary conditions. The next section includes a presentation of the most relevant aspects of CEST with an emphasis on the operating rules and attributes of the experiential/intuitive system. This is followed by demonstrating how the operation of the experiential/intuitive system can resolve each of the unresolved problems concerning intuition. The article closes with a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the experiential/intuitive and rational/analytic systems. It is concluded that neither system is generally superior to the other, as each has important advantages and disadvantages.     

The use of computer-controlled video disks in the study of spatial learning

The empirical study of spatial learning has been constrained by a range of methodological and technical limitations. Part of these are due to constraints in the stimulus delivery systems for pictorial displays that are available to the researcher. Surrogate travel systems—based on model photography, off-line computer graphics, and on-line computer graphics—provide alternative research settings. Yet none of the systems provides for both detailed displays and ease of subject interaction, both of which prove important in the investigation of spatial learning. Computer-controlled video-disk systems do allow both detail and interaction, therefore providing a research tool in which spatial learning phenomena can be observed carefully. A pilot study of spatial learning using a video-disk system is briefly described to demonstrate the sorts of phenomena observable with such a system.     

Spreadsheet analysis of a hierarchical control system model of behavior

The behavior of a hierarchy of control systems can be simulated with an electronic-spreadsheet. Each control system is a column of three cells representing the reference signal, perceptual signal, and output variable of the system. All of the control systems are closed-loop, the input to each system being a function of its output. The circular references in the spreadsheet are resolved through iterative recalculation. When the parameters of each control system (amplification and slowing factors) are set to appropriate values, all control systems in the hierarchy continue to match perceptual signals with reference signals. A three-level hierarchy with four systems at each level is simulated in the spreadsheet. The spreadsheet model makes it possible to observe the dynamic behavior of the control systems as they correct for the effects of environmental disturbance and changes in higher order reference signals. It is possible to “reorganize” the system by changing the perceptions controlled by systems at different levels of the hierarchy. The user can also test to determine the variables being controlled by the system.     

The effect of supervisor and trainee therapist gender on supervision discourse

The effects of supervisor and trainee therapist gender on supervision discourse were examined in this study. Forty episodes of supervision discourse, with ten drawn from each of four types of supervision systems were videotaped. The systems were (1) male supervisor and male trainee therapist; (2) male supervisor and female trainee therapist; (3) female supervisor and male trainee therapist; and (4) female supervisor and female trainee therapist. The episodes of supervision discourse were analysed using a supervision discourse coding system which showed adequate inter-rater reliability. For supervisors, the coding system allowed a directive discourse style and a collaborative discourse styled to be coded. A cooperative discourse style and a resistant discourse style could be coded for trainee therapists. Two statistically significant findings of considerable theoretical and clinical importance emerged. First, contrary to stereotypic expectations, discourse characterized by a directive supervision style and a resistant trainee therapist style was more common for systems containing a female supervisor than for those containing a male supervisor. Second, for same gender supervisor-trainee-therapist supervision systems, a collaborative systemic supervision style was correlated with both cooperative and resistant trainee therapist styles. This discourse pattern did not occur for opposite gender supervision systems, indicating that a collaborative supervision discourse style is consistently associated with trainee therapist parti-cipation (either cooperatively or resistantly) within same gender pairings of supervisors and trainee therapists. These results are discussed in light of relevant literature on gender, power and supervision process and the limitations of the study are considered.     

Two core systems of numerical representation in infants

Two nonverbal representation systems, the analog magnitude system (AMS) and the object tracking system (OTS), have been proposed to explain how humans and nonhuman animals represent numerosities. There has long been debate about which of the two systems is responsible for representing small numerosities (<4). This review focuses on findings with human infants to inform that debate. We argue that the empirical data cannot all be explained by a single system, and in particular, infants’ failures to compare small and large numerosities – the boundary effect – undermines the claim that the AMS can account for infants’ numerical abilities in their entirety. We propose that although the two systems coexist throughout the lifespan, competition between the systems is primarily a developmental phenomenon. Potential factors that drive the engagement of each system in infancy, such as stimulus features and task demands, are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested.