Bolstering implementation plans for the long haul: the benefits of simultaneously boosting self-concordance or self-efficacy

Recent studies suggest that implementation planning exercises may not be as helpful for long-term, self-initiated goals as for short-term, assigned goals. Two studies used the personal goal paradigm to explore the impact of implementation plans on goal progress over time. Study 1 examined whether administering implementation plans in an autonomy supportive manner would facilitate goal progress relative to a neutral, control condition and a condition in which implementation plans were administered in a controlling manner. Study 2 examined whether combining implementation plans with a self-efficacy boosting exercise would facilitate goal progress relative to a neutral, control condition and a typical implementation condition. The results showed that implementation plans alone did not result in greater goal progress than a neutral condition but that the combination of implementation plans with either autonomy support or self-efficacy boosting resulted in significantly greater goal progress.     

When Goals Conflict But People Prosper: The Case of Dispositional Optimism

Optimistic persistence in pursuing goals may have beneficial consequences such as protection against negative affect and greater likelihood of goal attainment, but persistence can also result in greater likelihood of goal conflict, which can have negative consequences. Two studies, one cross-sectional (N = 100) and one longitudinal (N = 77), found that optimism associated with higher goal conflict. However, objectively rated goal conflict did not significantly undermine adjustment, and when balance among goal value, expectancy, and conflict was considered, optimism associated with better balance. In turn, balance accounted for part of optimists' better goal progress over the course of a semester. Although goal conflict may have costs, these costs appear to be offset by accompanying benefits, particularly for optimists.     

Antecedents and trajectories of achievement goals: A self‐determination theory perspective

Background. Research has shown that both achievement goal theory and self‐determination theory (SDT) are quite useful in explaining student motivation and success in academic contexts. However, little is known about how the two theories relate to each other. Aim. The current research used SDT as a framework to understand why students enter classes with particular achievement goal profiles, and also, how those profiles may change over time. Sample. One hundred and eighty‐four undergraduate preservice teachers in a required domain course agreed to participate in the study. Method. Data were collected at three time points during the semester, and both path modelling and multi‐level longitudinal modelling techniques were used. Results. Path modelling techniques with 169 students, results indicated that students' autonomy and relatedness need satisfaction in life predict their initial self‐determined class motivation, which in turn predicts initial mastery‐approach and ‐avoidance goals. Multi‐level longitudinal modelling with 108 students found that perceived teacher autonomy support buffered against the general decline in students' mastery‐approach goals over the course of the semester. Conclusions. Data provide a promising integration of SDT and achievement goal theory, posing a host of potentially fruitful future research questions regarding goal adoption and trajectories.     

When the Going Gets Tough: The “Why” of Goal Striving Matters

No prior research has examined how motivation for goal striving influences persistence in the face of increasing goal difficulty. This research examined the role of self‐reported (Study 1) and primed (Study 2) autonomous and controlled motives in predicting objectively assessed persistence during the pursuit of an increasingly difficult goal. In Study 1, 100 British athletes (64 males; M_age = 19.89 years, SD_age = 2.43) pursued a goal of increasing difficulty on a cycle ergometer. In Study 2, 90 British athletes (43 males; M_age = 19.63 years, SD_age = 1.14) engaged in the same task, but their motivation was primed by asking them to observe a video of an actor describing her or his involvement in an unrelated study. In Study 1, self‐reported autonomous goal motives predicted goal persistence via challenge appraisals and task‐based coping. In contrast, controlled goal motives predicted threat appraisals and disengagement coping, which, in turn, was a negative predictor of persistence. In Study 2, primed autonomous (compared to controlled) goal motives predicted greater persistence, positive affect, and future interest for task engagement. The findings underscore the importance of autonomous motivation for behavioral investment in the face of increased goal difficulty.     

Exploring the relation of independent and interdependent self-construals to why and how people pursue personal goals

The authors examined whether independent or interdependent self-construals were associated with the way in which individuals pursued personal goals. Individuals with an independent self-construal orient toward personal-goal pursuit, whereas individuals with interdependent self-construal prioritize in-group goals above personal ones. The authors used a 1-week, prospective goal-setting paradigm. The present results revealed that interdependent self-construals were significantly associated with introjected reasons for pursuing goals, experiencing conflict among goals, and achieving less goal progress. Independent self-construals were significantly associated with intrinsic and identified reasons for goal pursuit and greater goal progress. There was some evidence that the relation of interdependent and independent self-construals to goal progress was mediated by goal conflict and goal intrinsic motivation, respectively. The present results also replicated previous research indicating the goal-setting benefits of intrinsic motivation, implementation intentions, and goal harmony.     

Implementation Planning as a Pathway Between Goal Motivation and Goal Progress for Academic and Physical Activity Goals1

The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the role of self‐concordance and implementation planning on the progress made by university students in the pursuit of their academic and physical activity goals over a 1‐month period. A sample of 205 students completed measures of self‐concordance at Time 1, and implementation planning and goal progress at Time 2. Results of structural equation modeling analyses indicated that implementation planning partially mediated the relationship between self‐concordance and academic goal progress, and fully mediated this relationship for goals related to physical activity. The results attest to the importance of selecting goals that are congruent with the self and the use of planning strategies for the facilitation of goal progress in 2 life domains.     

From goal motivation to goal progress: the mediating role of coping in the Self-Concordance Model

The present studies examined the mediating role of self-regulatory mechanisms in the relationship between goal motivation and goal progress in the Self-Concordance Model. First, a systematic review, using meta-analytical path analysis, supported the mediating role of effort and action planning in the positive association between autonomous goal motivation and goal progress. Second, results from two additional empirical studies, using structural equation modeling, lent credence to the mediating role of coping in the relationship between goal motivation and goal progress of university students. Autonomous goal motivation was positively associated with task-oriented coping, which predicted greater goal progress during midterm exams (Study 1, N=702) and at the end of the semester in a different sample (Study 2, N=167). Controlled goal motivation was associated with greater disengagement-oriented coping (Study 1 and Study 2) and lesser use of task-oriented coping (Study 2), which reduced goal progress. These results held up after controlling for perceived stress (Study 2). Our findings highlight the importance of coping in the "inception-to-attainment" goal process because autonomous goal motivation indirectly rather than directly predicts goal progress of university students through their usage of task-oriented coping.     

From goal motivation to goal progress: the mediating role of coping in the Self-Concordance Model

Abstract

The present studies examined the mediating role of self-regulatory mechanisms in the relationship between goal motivation and goal progress in the Self-Concordance Model. First, a systematic review, using meta-analytical path analysis, supported the mediating role of effort and action planning in the positive association between autonomous goal motivation and goal progress. Second, results from two additional empirical studies, using structural equation modeling, lent credence to the mediating role of coping in the relationship between goal motivation and goal progress of university students. Autonomous goal motivation was positively associated with task-oriented coping, which predicted greater goal progress during midterm exams (Study 1, N=702) and at the end of the semester in a different sample (Study 2, N=167). Controlled goal motivation was associated with greater disengagement-oriented coping (Study 1 and Study 2) and lesser use of task-oriented coping (Study 2), which reduced goal progress. These results held up after controlling for perceived stress (Study 2). Our findings highlight the importance of coping in the “inception-to-attainment” goal process because autonomous goal motivation indirectly rather than directly predicts goal progress of university students through their usage of task-oriented coping.     

When being far away is good: Exploring how mortality salience,regulatory mode,and goal progress affect judgments of meaning in life

Research indicates that death‐relevant thoughts (mortality salience) have a nuanced effect on judgments of life's meaningfulness. Thoughts of death diminish meaning in life only among people who lack or do not readily engage psychological structures that confer meaning. Building on this past research, the current research examined how an important source of meaning, long‐term goal progress, affects the ways that death‐relevant cognitions impact judgments of life's meaning. In Study 1 (N = 118), mortality salience decreased perceptions of meaning in life only among participants who were induced to feel closer to (vs. farther from) completing a long‐term goal. Study 2 (N = 259) extended these findings by demonstrating the moderating influence of individual differences in locomotion. Mortality salience again decreased perceptions of meaning in life among participants who felt closer to accomplishing a long‐term goal, but it only did so among people who do not quickly adopt new goals to pursue (i.e., those low in locomotion). The implications of these findings for better understanding how people maintain meaning in the face of existential concerns and how aspects of goal pursuit affect these processes are discussed.     

Goal hierarchies and plan revision

This paper examined the effects of goal failure on plan revision. We argued that plans can be conceptualized as hierarchies of interrelated goals, such that broad superordinate goals are progressively subdivided into chains of more concrete subgoals. It was further expected that following negative feedback individuals would be biased to revise their goals by resetting those subgoals which were most closely linked to the point where failure occurred. In Study 1, methodological problems prevented an adequate test of the research hypotheses. Unexpectedly, individuals formulated their plans with revision in mind. In particular, planners tended to overset lower-level subgoals such that minor failures would allow them to still achieve their higher-level goals without revision. These findings were replicated in Study 2. Study 3 again examined goal revision. We utilized an experimental design to achieve more control over the task and plan content. As expected, it was found that goal revision was biased by the structure of the goal hierarchy. In particular, individuals tended to focus on the specific subgoal where failure feedback existed. In doing so, they tended to ignore the overall plan and made changes only to a small section of the goal hierarchy.The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Carol Bormann, Keith James, Richard Hollenbeck, and Howard Weiss.     

Perfectionism and the pursuit of personal goals: A self-determination theory analysis

Previous studies have shown that self-critical and personal standards forms of perfectionism are associated with progress on personal goals in opposite ways. The present study used a 5-wave prospective longitudinal design to examine what motivational factors account for the finding that self-critical perfectionism has been reliably associated with poor goal progress whereas personal standard perfectionism has been associated with good progress. Specifically, we adopted a self-determination theory perspective to examine the role of autonomy in mediating the effects of perfectionism. Our results replicated previous findings linking the two forms of perfectionism with opposite patterns of goal progress. Importantly, the results suggested that the negative goal effects of self-critical perfectionism are mediated by lower levels of autonomous goal motivation. The results also demonstrated links from personal standards perfectionism to greater autonomous goal motivation. Interestingly, the effects of self-critical perfectionism on goal progress appeared to be dynamic over time and implicated affective mechanisms. The results of the investigation point to the value of adopting a self-determination theory perspective to understand perfectionism.     

Reactions to Feedback in Goal Choice and Goal Change Processes1

Two laboratory studies were conducted to test the effects of reactions to feedback on propensity to change an initial self-selected performance goal. In Study 1, the performance of 228 subjects on a word search task was manipulated by varying puzzle difficulty. In Study 2, two-dimensional goals (i.e., time and quantity) were first assigned and then chosen by 75 subjects. In Study 1, satisfaction with performance and self-efficacy predicted goal change beyond the effects of past performance. Subjects lower in both satisfaction and self-efficacy tended to lower initial goals, whereas those higher in either or both variables tended to raise them. In a post-hoc analysis, goal-performance discrepancies and motivational force interacted to explain satisfaction with performance for subjects experiencing negative feedback. This result was replicated in Study 2 for self-selected quantity goals. In Study 2, satisfaction with performance explained goal choice beyond the effects of past performance for initial time goals and final quantity goals. Trade-offs in the selection of dual goals occurred, with subjects selecting a difficult goal on one dimension and an easy goal on the other. Suggestions for future research and practice on self-regulation of goals and performance are provided.     

Empirically distinguishing interpersonal styles within romantic relationships: What is helpful or harmful when having a goal for your romantic partner?

IntroductionRelationship research rooted in self-determination theory often focuses on autonomy support. However, rarely is this interpersonal style considered alongside other facets of relational behaviours such as directive support and control.ObjectiveThe present study aimed to distinguish the three styles by providing a tool that can simultaneously assess them.MethodA total sample of 710 French Canadians involved in a romantic relationship was used for factor extraction and test of dimensionality as well as reliability. Predictive validity was tested using multiple linear regressions with six outcomes: well-being, relationship quality, closeness, goal progress, cooperation and conflicts.ResultsResults suggested three distinct interpersonal styles, each of which showing a different pattern of prediction with the outcomes. Overall, autonomy support was associated with positive outcomes, whereas control was associated with negative outcomes. As for directive support, the global pattern was between the two others.ConclusionThe present research offers a scale which simultaneously assesses and distinguishes the autonomy-supportive, directive-supportive and controlling styles in a romantic relationship context using three items each. By examining the associations between these three interpersonal styles and various outcomes four months later, this study sheds light on helpful and harmful behaviours in relation to the goals people have for their romantic partner.     

Predicting change in relationship insecurity: The roles of compassionate and self‐image goals

It was hypothesized that self‐image goals to construct, defend, and maintain desired images of the self enhance relationship insecurity, whereas compassionate goals to support others diminish relationship insecurity. Study 1 followed 115 new college roommates for 3 weeks; Study 2 followed 230 new college roommates across a semester. Both studies assessed self‐image and compassionate goals for and anxiety and avoidance in the roommate relationship. Self‐image goals predicted increased relationship anxiety and avoidance across 3 weeks (Study 1) and within weeks, from week to week, and across 3 months (Study 2). Compassionate goals consistently predicted decreased relationship anxiety and avoidance across studies and analyses. These results suggest that through their interpersonal goals, people contribute directly to their own relationship insecurity.     

Do mindful people set better goals? Investigating the relation between trait mindfulness,self-concordance,and goal progress

The present research examined the relation between trait mindfulness, self-concordance, and goal progress. We hypothesized that mindfulness would be positively associated with setting self-concordant goals (Studies 1–3), which would in turn predict greater goal progress (Studies 2 and 3). An internal mini meta-analysis (N = 1522) indicates that mindfulness had a small, positive association with self-concordant goal setting, r = 0.14, p < .001. Two longitudinal studies (Studies 2 and 3) found a small indirect effect of mindfulness on goal progress through self-concordance, although this was marginal in Study 2. In addition, Studies 2 and 3 found that mindfulness predicted increases in goal self-concordance over time. These findings provide support for the proposition that mindful people set “better” goals.     

大学毕业生目标自主性与无望感:社会支持与性别的作用

大学毕业生面临重要的生活转折, 其个人目标自主性对未来的无望感有显著影响。本研究以192名大四毕业生为被试, 采用特殊目标测量法考察个人目标自主性, 用问卷评价社会支持与无望感, 探讨目标自主性与无望感的关系, 并分析社会支持和性别的作用。结果发现:(1)毕业前夕去向已经确定的大学生, 无望感更低;(2)大四毕业生目标自主性越高, 对未来的无望感越低;(3)目标自主性对无望感的预测受到性别因素调节。对于男生, 高目标自主性能够显著降低无望感;对于女生, 目标自主性对无望感的预测作用不显著;(4)社会支持对于目标自主性与无望感之间的关系没有显著的调节作用, 但是社会支持越高, 其无望感越低。由此可见, 大学毕业生建立自主的个人目标和改善社会支持对降低无望感具有重要意义, 目标自主性的效应对男生尤为明显。     

Goal striving within agentic and communal roles: separate but functionally similar pathways to enhanced well-being

ABSTRACT Do agency and communion strivings provide functionally similar but predictively independent pathways to enhanced well‐being? We tested this idea via a year‐long study of 493 diverse community adults. Our process model, based on self‐determination and motive disposition theories, fit the data well. First, the need for achievement predicted initial autonomous motivation for agentic (work and school) role‐goals and the need for intimacy predicted felt autonomy for communal (relationship and parenting) goals. For both agentic and communal goals, autonomous motivation predicted corresponding initial expectancies that predicted later goal attainment. Finally, each type of attainment predicted improved adjustment or role‐satisfaction over the year. Besides being similar across agency and communion, the model was also similar across race and gender, except that the beneficial effects of communal goal attainment were stronger for high need for intimacy women and Blacks. Implications for agency/communion theories, motivation theories, and theories of well‐being are discussed.     

Stress Moderates the Association between Action Orientation and Goal Internalization

The purpose of this study is to examine whether stress moderates the association between action-state orientation and goal internalization. People estimated how autonomous (vs. controlled) they would feel if they pursued goals of either an extrinsic or an intrinsic type. Measures of action orientation and stressful life events were also taken. Results showed that autonomy of goal motive for action orientation was moderated by stress (failure-related and demanding) situation. Action-oriented people have less internalized goal than state-oriented people in stress situation. Implication for self-determination theory and action-control theory is discussed.     

Regulatory Focus and the Interpersonal Dynamics of Romantic Partners’ Personal Goal Discussions

Guided by regulatory focus theory, we examined how romantic partners’ chronic concerns with promotion (advancement) and prevention (security) shape the interpersonal dynamics of couples’ conversations about different types of personal goals. Members of 95 couples (N = 190) first completed chronic regulatory focus measures and then engaged in videotaped discussions of two types of goals that were differentially relevant to promotion and prevention concerns. Participants also completed measures of goal‐ and partner‐relevant perceptions. Independent observers rated the discussions for support‐related behaviors. Highly promotion‐focused people approached their partners more, perceived greater partner responsiveness, and received more support when discussing goals that were promotion‐relevant and that they perceived as less attainable. When partners’ responsiveness to promotion‐relevant goals was low, highly promotion‐focused people reported greater self‐efficacy regarding these goals. Highly prevention‐focused people perceived more responsiveness when partners were less distancing during discussions of their prevention‐relevant goals, and greater responsiveness perceptions reassured them that these goals are less disruptive to the relationship. These findings suggest that chronic concerns with promotion and prevention orient people to their relationship environment in ways that are consistent with these distinct motivational needs, especially when discussing goals that increase the salience of these needs.     

Dealing with Dynamic Decision Problems when Knowledge of the Environment Is Limited: An Approach Based on Goal Systems

We experimentally analyzed decision procedures for dealing with a dynamic decision‐making problem in which only qualitative information about the deterministic dynamics of the environment was available to participants. A participant's task was to maximize long‐term profit in a computer‐simulated monopoly market featuring delays and inertia. The design enabled a goal‐system‐based procedure, whereby a participant could select one or several short‐term variables to be controlled (goal variables) and chose target values (aspiration levels) for each of them over a total of 50 periods. We report results based on a sample of 63 participants on the formation of goal systems and the process of aspiration adaptation. Our main findings are, first, that more frequently selecting goal systems that adequately reflect the causal structure of the underlying model is positively correlated with long‐term profit; second, that goal persistence, a measure of a participant's tendency to stick to the current goal system, is positively correlated with long‐term profit; and third, that aspiration levels tend to be adapted in strong agreement with certain basic principles of a benchmark model of aspiration adaptation. Our study thus suggests and provides empirical foundation for an approach to dealing with complex dynamic decision problems based on neither optimization nor learning. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.