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1.
Philosophical Studies - On the strict liability view, excusably ignorant agents must cover all the wrongful costs they have inadvertently brought onto others, although it is undisputed that they... 相似文献
2.
Previous studies of object recognition have shown efficient recognition of silhouettes, suggesting that much of the information
used to recognize objects resides in the outline. These studies, however, have used objects that contain many components,
which provide redundant information. In this study, we examined recognition of silhouettes of less-complex objects, so that
redundant information was reduced. We found that viewpoint generalization costs (the decrement of performance when recognizing
nonstudied views) were greater for silhouettes than for shaded images, even when the same qualitative components were visible
in the outline of both studied and nonstudied views. Thus, silhouettes do not always allow for view generalization as efficiently
as do shaded images. 相似文献
3.
Joachim Wündisch 《Philosophical Studies》2017,174(4):837-851
Excusable ignorance not only undermines moral culpability but also agent-responsibility. Therefore, excusable ignorance absolves of liability for costs. Specifically, it defeats liability that is meant to be derived from causal responsibility wherever strict liability cannot be justified. To establish these claims this paper (1) assesses the potential of arguments for liability of excusably ignorant agents and thereby demarcates the proper domain of strict liability and (2) traces the intuition that seemingly supports strict liability accounts to more general principles. The paper concludes that liability cannot be justified in cases of excusable ignorance. Finally, it (3) stresses that although excusable ignorance defeats the link from causal responsibility to liability for costs this does not imply that victims are left to fend for themselves. 相似文献
4.
Verdonschot RG La Heij W Paolieri D Zhang Q Schiller NO 《Quarterly journal of experimental psychology (2006)》2011,64(9):1836-1849
The current study investigated the effects of phonologically related context pictures on the naming latencies of target words in Japanese and Chinese. Reading bare words in alphabetic languages has been shown to be rather immune to effects of context stimuli, even when these stimuli are presented in advance of the target word (e.g., Glaser & Düngelhoff, 1984 ; Roelofs, 2003 ). However, recently, semantic context effects of distractor pictures on the naming latencies of Japanese kanji (but not Chinese hànzì) words have been observed (Verdonschot, La Heij, & Schiller, 2010 ). In the present study, we further investigated this issue using phonologically related (i.e., homophonic) context pictures when naming target words in either Chinese or Japanese. We found that pronouncing bare nouns in Japanese is sensitive to phonologically related context pictures, whereas this is not the case in Chinese. The difference between these two languages is attributed to processing costs caused by multiple pronunciations for Japanese kanji. 相似文献
5.
《Quarterly journal of experimental psychology (2006)》2013,66(9):1836-1849
The current study investigated the effects of phonologically related context pictures on the naming latencies of target words in Japanese and Chinese. Reading bare words in alphabetic languages has been shown to be rather immune to effects of context stimuli, even when these stimuli are presented in advance of the target word (e.g., Glaser & Düngelhoff, 1984; Roelofs, 2003). However, recently, semantic context effects of distractor pictures on the naming latencies of Japanese kanji (but not Chinese hànzì) words have been observed (Verdonschot, La Heij, & Schiller, 2010). In the present study, we further investigated this issue using phonologically related (i.e., homophonic) context pictures when naming target words in either Chinese or Japanese. We found that pronouncing bare nouns in Japanese is sensitive to phonologically related context pictures, whereas this is not the case in Chinese. The difference between these two languages is attributed to processing costs caused by multiple pronunciations for Japanese kanji. 相似文献
6.
The present study investigated gendered stereotypes involving women’s family size, employment, and occupation. Eleven ratings
of targets’ social and personality characteristics were ascribed by 400 undergraduates to a hypothetical married woman described
as voluntarily childfree or the mother of one, two, or eight children, and as nonemployed or employed either part or full
time in either a gender-appropriate or gender-inappropriate occupation. Women employed in gender-atypical occupations were
considered less expressive and were socially distanced, but this factor did not interact with family size. Two-children mothers
were regarded favorably as was employment. Prior findings denigrating single-child mothers and glorifying eight-children mothers
were not replicated—both groups were rated similar to normative, two-children mothers. Consistent with prior research, childfree
women were evaluated least favorably. Findings suggest that norms regarding both family size (two children) and employment
exist among contemporary college students.
The authors thank Pauline Beres for her help with data collection and entry. This paper was presented at the meeting of the
American Psychological Association in New York in 1995. 相似文献
7.
Reynolds and Besner (2005) examined contextual control over the use of lexical and nonlexical routes by requiring participants
to alternate between reading pairs of low-frequency exception words and pairs of nonwords. Their main finding was that latencies
for both words (e.g., wad) and nonwords (e.g., flad) were slower when the immediately preceding trial involved the opposite
item type rather than the same item type (a switch cost). The authors interpreted this result as evidence that under certain
circumstances, readers have the ability to shift emphasis between their lexical and nonlexical routes. The present research
shows that these results can be replicated using Reynolds and Besner’s items; however, the switch cost for words, but not
for nonwords, disappears when more easily named nonwords are used. This result suggests that Reynolds and Besner’s results
were likely due to something other than shifting route emphasis. 相似文献
8.
Carl F. Grindstaff 《Sex roles》1996,35(3-4):137-151
This research is placed within the framework of the second demographic transition. The focus of the paper is on Canadian women aged 33–38 who began childbearing relatively late in the reproductive years. These women are compared to both single and ever-married or cohabiting women in the same age group who have no children on a series of cultural and economic variables (N= 9682). Approximately 10% of the sample consists of visible minorities. The results indicate that women with young children aged 2–5 present in the home (and no other children present) are disadvantaged in terms of economic outcome, especially labor force participation, full-time work, and income. The findings suggest that having a first child even at an older reproductive age results in women bearing a major opportunity cost for that fertility. Implications are discussed in the context of alternative childrearing behaviors. 相似文献
9.
Katharine H. Greenaway Elise K. Kalokerinos 《European Review of Social Psychology》2017,28(1):134-174
Researchers and lay people alike have tended to focus on social benefits of expressing positive emotion and, as a result, tend to overlook potential social costs. In this paper, we consider limits to the idea that expressing positive emotion is universally beneficial and review literature demonstrating that, in some contexts, expressing positive emotion can have social costs. Building on our own and others’ work in this space, we outline three sociocontextual factors that influence the social success of positive emotion expression: To avoid potential costs, we suggest that positive emotion should generally be expressed in the right situation, by (and to) the right person, and in the right way. Where positive emotion expression may incur social costs, we propose people can effectively down-regulate positive emotion through use of expressive suppression, and review literature demonstrating that there can be social benefits to down-regulating positive emotion. This review advances theorising on the importance of considering context when seeking to understand socially successful emotion expression and regulation. 相似文献
10.
11.
The single-object advantage is said to occur when performance is faster and/or more accurate when the two targets to be compared appear on one object than when they appear on two different objects. The single-object advantage has been interpreted to suggest that attention can select objects rather than unparsed regions of visual space. In five experiments we explored whether directing attention to one object rather than two objects produces a benefit or a minor cost. Participants were required to compare two target features that belonged to one object, to two objects, or did not belong to any object. In addition, we varied the relevance to the task of object-related global information, such as symmetry of the object and perceptual cluttering of the background. Results showed that attending to one object in comparison to attending to no object produced a benefit only when object-related global information was relevant to the task. In contrast, when object-related global information was irrelevant to the task, attending to one object produced a cost. Thus, it can be concluded that attending to an object does not produce an absolute benefit, but rather produces a smaller cost than attending to two objects. 相似文献
12.
L. Robert Slevc Nicholas S. Davey Jared A. Linck 《Journal of Cognitive Psychology》2016,28(4):385-395
Considerable work has used language-switching tasks to investigate how bilinguals manage competition between languages. Language-switching costs have been argued to reflect persisting inhibition or persisting activation of a non-target language. However, these costs might instead reflect the use of bivalent stimuli (i.e. pictures or digits that can be responded to in either language). That is, language-switching costs may simply reflect a cost of selecting the task-appropriate response for a given item and so may not be reflective of bilingual lexical access [Finkbeiner, M., Almeida, J., Janssen, N., & Carramaza, A. (2006). Lexical selection in bilingual speech production does not involve language suppression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(5), 1075–1089]. The present study addresses this concern by having Chinese/English bilinguals switch between languages in response to inherently univalent stimuli (English words and Chinese Characters) as well as lexically univalent, but orthographically bivalent, stimuli (English words and Chinese Pinyin). Speakers showed switch costs when naming both univalent and orthographically bivalent stimuli, showing that switch costs can be found even with inherently univalent stimuli. 相似文献
13.
Stefaan Van Damme Geert Crombez Liesbet Goubert Christopher Eccleston 《Psychology & health》2013,28(4):367-371
Abstract This study was designed to assess the effects of exercise on psychological functioning in healthy Type A men. Seventy-three middle-aged men (M=42.2 years) were randomly assigned either to an aerobic exercise (AE) training group or to a strength and flexibility (SF) training group. Subjects completed a comprehensive psychological assessment battery prior to beginning the 12-week exercise programs, and after completing the programs. The psychological test battery included measures of depression, anxiety and stress, as well as various psychiatric symptoms. In addition, subjects underwent graded exercise treadmill tests (ETT) at both times of measurement in order to document changes in cardiorespiratory fitness. Aerobic exercise training consisted of walking, jogging or stair-climbing at an intensity of at least 70% of initial measured maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max determined during the treadmill test). Strength and flexibility training consisted of circuit Nautilus training with no aerobic exercise. Results at the conclusion of the 12-week programs indicated that [Vdot]O2max for the AE group increased by 15%, while the SF group did not change. Both groups improved on measures of psychological well-being; however, there were no differential effects of the two exercise programs on measures of psychological functioning. These results suggest that improved cardiovascular fitness is not necessary for psychological improvement among exercise participants. 相似文献
14.
The measurement of “switch costs” is held to be of interest because, as is widely believed, they may reflect the control
processes that are engaged when subjects switch between two (or more) competing tasks. [In task-switching experiments, the
reaction time (RT) switch cost is typically measured as the difference in RT between switch and non-switch (repeat) trials.]
In this report we focus on the RT switch costs that remain even after the subject has had some time to prepare for the shift
of task, when the switch cost may be approximately asymptotic (so-called residual switch costs). Three experiments are presented.
All three experiments used Stroop colour/word, and neutral stimuli. Participants performed the two tasks of word-reading and
colour-naming in a regular, double alternation, using the “alternating runs” paradigm (R. D. Rogers & S. Monsell, 1995). The
experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that RT switch costs depend on a form of proactive interference (PI) arising
from the performance of a prior, competing task. A. Allport, E. A. Styles and S. Hsieh (1994) suggested that these PI effects
resulted from “task-set inertia”, that is, the persisting activation-suppression of competing task-sets, or competing task-processing
pathways. The results confirmed the existence of long-lasting PI from the competing task as a major contributor to switch
costs. Non-switch trials, used as the baseline in the measurement of switch costs, were also shown to be strongly affected
by similar PI effects. However, task-set inertia was not sufficient to account for these results. The results appeared inconsistent
also with all other previous models of task switching. A new hypothesis to explain these between-task interference effects
was developed, based on the stimulus-triggered retrieval of competing stimulus-response (S-R) associations, acquired (or strengthened)
in earlier trials. Consistent with this retrieval hypothesis, switch costs were shown to depend primarily on the S-R characteristics
of the preceding task (the task that was switched from) rather than the upcoming task. Further, the effects of the other,
competing task were found to persist over many successive switching trials, affecting switch costs long after the stimulus
overlap (and hence the principal S-R competition) between the current tasks had been removed. Switch costs were also found
to be affected by recent, item-specific experience with a given stimulus, in either the same or the competing task. Finally,
the results showed that switch costs were massively affected by the ratio of the number of prior trials, in response to the
same stimuli, that had implemented either the currently intended or the competing S-R mappings. None of these effects are
predicted by current models of residual switch costs, which appeal to the differences in control processes assumed to be engaged
in switch versus non-switch trials.
Received: 31 March 1999 / Accepted: 23 July 1999 相似文献
15.
Thomas N. Chirikos Ph.D. 《Behavioral sciences & the law》1999,17(1):93-106
Whether the costs of job accommodation remain low as more persons with disabilities enter the work force is a crucial issue in evaluating the progress of the employment provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Much depends on the extent to which health and economic factors thought to raise or lower the costs of accommodation to employers actually predict accommodation outcomes. An empirical model of employer accommodation is specified and tested with data on a representative sample of Americans in their fifties. Among others, the results show that both the likelihood and extent of job accommodation are significantly influenced by cost-increasing and cost-decreasing factors, in each case in the direction predicted by the model. Inferences about the future trajectory of the costs of job accommodation and the employment effects of the ADA are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
16.
In the explicitly cued task-switching paradigm, two cues per task allow separation of costs associated with switching cues
from costs of switching tasks. Whilst task-switch costs have become controversial, cue-switch costs are robust. The processes
that contribute to cue-switch costs are under-specified in the literature: they could reflect perceptual priming of cue properties,
or priming of control processes that form relevant working memory (WM) representations of task demands. Across two experiments
we manipulated cue-transparency in an attention-switching design to test the contrasting hypotheses of cue-switch costs, and
show that such costs emerge from control processes of establishing relevant WM representations, rather than perceptual priming
of the cue itself. When the cues were maximally transparent, cue-switch costs were eradicated. We discuss the results in terms
of recent theories of cue encoding, and provide a formal definition of cue-transparency in switching designs and its relation
to WM representations that guide task performance. 相似文献
17.
The aim of the present study was to investigate whether costs invoked by the presence of an irrelevant singleton distractor in a visual search task are due to attentional capture by the irrelevant singleton or spatially unrelated filtering costs. Measures of spatial effects were based on distance effects, compatibility effects, and differences between singleton and nonsingleton target trials. The results show that the distractor only regularly captures attention when it is nonpredictive of the target position and unpredictably changes its features. When the distractor is antipredictive of the target position and the irrelevant features of target and distractor remain constant throughout the experiment, spatially unrelated filtering costs prevail. Further experiments showed that filtering costs accrue from distractor inhibition or target activation processes, which in turn can be modeled as instances of priming of pop-out. The present study thus clarifies the notion of filtering costs and modifies present accounts of the distraction effect. Moreover, the results also relate to research of intertrial priming by showing that priming affects the stage of attentional selection and depends on top-down attentional control settings. 相似文献
18.
In counter updating tasks, responses are typically faster when items repeat than when they change (item switch costs). The
present study explored the contribution of stimulus–response bindings to these item switch costs. In two experiments, we orthogonally
manipulated the repetition/switch of to-be-counted items and the repetition/switch of required manual responses. Item switch
costs were considerably lower when item switches were accompanied by response switches than when accompanied by response repetitions.
Experiment 2 showed that, although there was also a smaller contribution from stimulus–stimulus bindings (i.e., shape-location),
the major part was due to stimulus-response bindings. These results show that in the widely used standard version of the counter
updating task, a considerable portion of item switch costs is caused by the unbinding of stimulus–response bindings rather
than by processes of switching items in working memory. 相似文献
19.
Joshua Mugg 《Philosophical Studies》2013,166(2):217-229
Tamar Gendler argues that, for those living in a society in which race is a salient sociological feature, it is impossible to be fully rational: members of such a society must either fail to encode relevant information containing race, or suffer epistemic costs by being implicitly racist. However, I argue that, although Gendler calls attention to a pitfall worthy of study, she fails to conclusively demonstrate that there are epistemic (or cognitive) costs of being racist. Gendler offers three supporting phenomena. First, implicit racists expend cognitive energy repressing their implicit biases. I reply, citing Ellen Bialystok’s research, that constant use of executive functioning can be beneficial. Second, Gendler argues that awareness of a negative stereotype of one’s own race with regard to a given task negatively affects one’s performance of that task. This phenomenon, I argue, demonstrates that those against whom the stigma is directed suffer costs, but it fails to demonstrate that the stigmatizers suffer cognitively. Finally, Gendler argues that racists are less competent when recognizing faces of other races than when recognizing faces of their own race because, in the first instance, they encode the race of the face (taking up cognitive space that could have been used to encode fine-grained distinctions), whereas in the second instance they encode no race. I argue that in-group/out-group categorization rather than racism is the cognitive cost. I conclude that Gendler has failed to demonstrate that there are cognitive costs associated with being a racist. 相似文献
20.
Repetition effects are often viewed as informative regarding the cognitive mechanisms of action control. One particular finding, namely costs for repeating the same response in subsequent trials, especially challenges theorizing. Costs for response repetitions have recently been reported in task-switch studies on task-switch trials (whereas benefits usually arise in task-repetition trials), but also in some choice-RT task studies. In three experiments, two of the most successful accounts for the response-repetition costs in choice-RT task studies and task switching were tested: an expectancy-based explanation, and an inhibition-based account. Using a choice-RT task introduced by Smith (1968) and manipulating the response–stimulus interval (RSI) and the categorizability of the stimuli, some specific predictions of the two accounts were tested. The results clearly revealed that expectancy-based explanations fail to account for the observed patterns of effects, whereas they are well in line with the predictions from the inhibition-based account. Finally, the results are further discussed with respect to alternative accounts from the field of task switching. 相似文献