An eye movement study of insight problem solving

The representational change theory of insight claims that insight problems cause impasses because they mislead problem solvers into constructing inappropriate initial representations. Insight is attained when the initial representation is changed. In the present study (N = 24), we tested three specific implications of these hypotheses against eye movements recorded while participants solved matchstick arithmetic problems. The results were consistent with the predictions, providing converging evidence with prior findings using solution rates and solution times. Alternative theories of insight can explain individual findings, but only the representational change theory accounts for both the performance data and the eye movement data. The present study also suggests that eye movement recordings provide an important new window into processes of insight problem solving.     

Evaluation algorithm for eye movement patterns during a problem solving task]

Cognitive processes are accompanied by eye movements, which are interrupted by fixations of an almost infinite number of points in the visual field. To investigate these processes, a systematic analysis of those movements is required to structure the long sequences of fixations. This task is possible if there are interrelationships between the ongoing thought processes and the fixations. Such interrelationships may manifest themselves through certain patterns of eye movements. It often happens that subsets of visual points are being looked at repeatedly. This is because a cognitive connection among the subset's elements is being discovered or created by such repetition. The method presented here attempts to achieve automatic recognition of fixation point patterns. Its usefulness is demonstrated using data from an experiment where eye movements were recorded while subjects were solving Raven Test items. The method may be characterized as a variant of time series analysis for nominal data. It is suitable for non-numerical data in general.     

Modified decision processes marked by linguistic forms in a problem solving task

The aim of this paper is to formalize, from linguistic markers, the on-line modifications of decision processes in terms of detachments from the spatio-temporal situation. For that, a 10-year-old’s verbal protocol, obtained during four successive trials on the Tower of Hanoi puzzle, is analyzed in the line of current cognitive linguistics, notably Culioli’s theory of enunciative operations. A first modification is inherent to decision process themselves according to their status, defining a distribution of representations between internal vs external problem spaces. That is marked by the presence or not of aggregates and of “starting terms”. A second kind of modifications is marked by modal terms. The formalization relies on a cognitive interpretation of enunciative operations involved in these detachments and suggests a new approach of information processing. Results show a progressive identification of constraints, and the reconstruction of the spatio-temporal situation at detached levels. Several kinds of partial articulations and compositions intervene in the on-line construction of elementary classes and between declarative and procedural aggregates.     

Linguistic markers of decision processes in a problem solving task

Two distinct decision processes, involved in the construction of chunks, were characterized from the cognitive interpretation of Culioli’s enunciative operations in 80 thinking aloud verbal reports for the Tower of Hanoi puzzle. The instructions presented the tower to 20 participants, 10 years old, during four consecutive trials, with two distinct verbal labels, either as a collection or as a class, i.e. as Tower vs. Disks. Two studies analysed the repartition of linguistic markers: enunciative Locations between consecutive moves, interpreted as markers of automatic entailments and of attentional focusing; and Starting Terms, as markers of a categorizing process, reconstructing external occurrences at a higher level of control, and regulating the access to abstraction. In the first study sections were demarcated on every solution path by the achievement of subgoals, and by points of obligatory passage, and, in the second one, two distinct batches of moves were distinguished. Results allowed to characterize micro-processes involved in the interaction between internal and external spaces. A process of internalization and externalization, entailing perseverations, was observed in the case of holistic structure, at the beginning in condition Tower, and later in condition Disks where the emergence of this structure was attested. A third study analyzed individual differences in performance, showing two mechanisms of generalization, one in interactive processing, the other along the optimal strategy in the external space. These exploratory results open the way to a number of issues going far beyond the case of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.     

The effect of problem size on representation in deductive problem solving

Adult Ss attempted to solve logical deductive reasoning problems that varied systematically in amount of information presented. Methods Ss employed in representing the problem were classified into five main types or modes. The proportion of Ss using a matrix mode of problem representation increased moderately with problems containing large amounts of information. The performance of Ss using a matrix mode of representation suggested that this advantage is related to ease of applying and/or storing the results of logical operations in such a problem space rather than to any facilitative effects of encoding processes. Specific limits to normal processing are hypothesized.     

Comprehension as affected by structure of problem representation

A problem-like branching system describing what prizes (A through F) were awarded for particular outcomes of a tournament of games among three teams was presented to 200 subjects as either a verbal list with “go to” structure (Jump), a shortened verbal list (Short-Jump), nested verbal paragraphs with “if ... then..., else” structure (Nest), a matrix table (Example), or as diagrammatic representations of each of these. In tests of comprehension, the overall performance increased from lowest to highest as follows: Jump < Short-Jump ? Nest < Example, and this order was particularly strong for performance on complex questions relative to less complex questions. Jump and Short-Jump performance was relatively higher with diagrams and Example was lower with diagrams. Implications for a theory of problem representation and for development of computer programming languages were discussed.     

Mental representation of three-dimensional objects in visual problem solving and recognition

Subjects inspected sets of flat, separated orthographic projections of surfaces of potential three-dimensional objects. After solving problems based on these orthographic views, subjects discriminated between isometric views of the same objects and drawings of distractor structures. Recognition of the isometrics, which had never been shown during the problem solving phase of the experiment, was excellent. In addition, recognition of isometrics corresponding to problems that had been solved correctly when presented in orthographic form was significantly superior to recognition of isometrics based on problems solved incorrectly. In Experiment 2, conditions were included in which either orthographic or isometric views functioned as problem solving or recognition displays. Only in the case of orthographic problem solving followed by isometric recognition (Experiment 1) was the superiority of recognition for correctly-solved problems over incorrectly-solved problems obtained. The pattern of results suggests that viewers construct mental representations embodying structural information about integrated, three-dimensional objects when asked to reason about flat, disconnected projections.     

The relationship between indecisiveness and eye movement patterns in a decision making informational search task

Indecisiveness is a trait‐related general tendency to experience decision difficulties across a variety of situations, leading to decision delay, worry, and regret. Indecisiveness is proposed (Rassin, 2007) to be associated with an increase in desire for information acquisition and reliance on compensatory strategies—as evidenced by alternative‐based information search—during decision making. However existing studies provide conflicting findings. We conducted an information board study of indecisiveness, using eye tracking methodology, to test the hypotheses that the relationship between indecisiveness and choice strategy depends on being in the early stage of the decision making process, and that it depends on being in the presence of an opportunity to delay choice. We found strong evidence for the first hypothesis in that indecisive individuals changed shift behavior from the first to the second half of the task, consistent with a move from greater to lesser compensatory processing, while the shift behavior of decisive individuals suggested lesser compensatory processing over the whole task. Indecisiveness was also related to time spent viewing attributes of the selected course, and to time spent looking away from decision information. These findings resolve past discrepancies, suggest an interesting account of how the decision process unfolds for indecisive versus decisive individuals, and contribute to a better understanding of this tendency. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of perceptually represented structure in analogical problem solving

Current models of analogical reasoning assume that representations of source examples and target problems occur in an amodal format--that is, a representation whose construction and processing are independent of activity in the perceptual and motor cortices of the brain. We examined the possible use of kinesthetic information--perceptual structures associated with the sensation of space and force--in the representation of source examples and target problems. Participants who recreated a source story while acting out the key elements were more likely to access the story when later working on the target problem than were participants who only verbally recreated the story or who verbally recreated it as well as sketched it. We argue that enactment made kinesthetic and spatial features more salient in participants' source story representations and that this aided performance. These results suggest that current models of analogical reasoning might be improved by including perceptual information as part of their representational schemes.     

Motor imagery ability and internal representation of movement in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

It has been hypothesised that deficits in the functioning of the mirror neuron system (MNS) and internal modelling may contribute to the motor impairments associated with DCD. These processes can be explored behaviourally through motor imagery paradigms. Motor imagery proficiency of children with and without probable DCD (pDCD) was examined using a complex hand rotation task to explore whether motor imagery strategies could be used during more complex tasks. Forty-four boys aged 7–13 years participated, 22 with pDCD (mean = 9.90 years ± 1.57) and 22 controls (mean = 9.68 years ± 1.53). Participants completed the task twice: with and without motor imagery instructions. Stimuli were presented in two rotational axes – palm/back, and eight 45° rotational steps. Both groups showed evidence of following the biomechanical and postural constraints of actual movements. Responses of children with pDCD were slower and less accurate than controls, with group differences increasing alongside task complexity. A greater impact of biomechanical constraints for accuracy was observed in the DCD group. The response characteristics of children with pDCD likely reflects a reduced capacity to mentally manipulate a body schema and reduced visuo-motor processing capabilities. Behaviourally, these processes are linked to MNS and internal modelling function, suggesting deficits in these systems may contribute to the movement difficulties characteristic of DCD.     

Visual representation of eye gaze is coded by a nonopponent multichannel system

To date, there is no functional account of the visual perception of gaze in humans. Previous work has demonstrated that left gaze and right gaze are represented by separate mechanisms. However, these data are consistent with either a multichannel system comprising separate channels for distinct gaze directions (e.g., left, direct, and right) or an opponent-coding system in which all gaze directions are coded by just 2 pools of cells, one coding left gaze and the other right, with direct gaze represented as a neutral point reflecting equal activation of both left and right pools. In 2 experiments, the authors used adaptation procedures to investigate which of these models provides the optimal account. Both experiments supported multichannel coding. Previous research has shown that facial identity is coded by an opponent-coding system; hence, these results also demonstrate that gaze is coded by a different representational system to facial identity.     

The effects of position in a display upon problem solving

Sixty-four subjects, aged between 15 and 72 years were told how to carry out a problem-solving task, whose difficulty could be varied by changing the position of an index card in relation to a display and control.

The outstanding feature, particularly of the older group's performance was the repetition of the same two kinds of mistake. Their failure seemed mainly due to an inability to rid themselves of their wrong “solutions,” in spite of the constant information indicating the mistake at each position. Whilst these differences between the age groups were hot pronounced at the easiest task, they were at the most difficult.

It is suggested that: Firstly, the procedure of giving a subject the solution to a problem and observing how he reconciles his information with it, though only operating in a circumscribed area of problem-solving, is a genuine example of thinking, and, particularly where certain kinds of mistake can be predicted, it enables the experimenter to gain a more exact impression of what a subject is doing. Secondly, the manipulation of spatial contiguities lends itself to flexible and fairly precise measurement, and the principle might usefully be extended to other variables such as size, time intervals, colour, etc.     

The role of stimulus preexposure in problem solving by Octopus vulgaris

Octopus vulgaris is able to open transparent glass jars closed with plastic plugs and containing live crabs. The decrease in performance times for removing the plug and seizing the prey with increasing experience of the task has been taken to indicate learning. However, octopuses’ attack behaviors are typically slow and variable in novel environmental situations. In this study the role of preexposure to selected features of the problem-solving context was investigated. Although octopuses failed to benefit from greater familiarity with the training context or with selected elements of the task of solving the jar problem, the methodological strategies used are instructive in potentially clarifying the role of complex problem-solving behaviors in this species including stimulus preexposure and social learning. Received: 27 April 1998 / Accepted after revision: 24 July 1998     

Evidence for internal representation of a static nonlinearity in a visual tracking task

A group of 24 participants was given over 3 h practice at a visual pursuit tracking task with a pronounced static nonlinearity between movement of the joystick and the resulting deflection of the response cursor. The aim was twofold: (1) to determine whether or not participants compensated for the nonlinearity and (2) to show that any such compensation involved the formation of an internal representation of the nonlinear relationship between movement of the joystick as sensed kinaesthetically and/or visually and movement of the response cursor as sensed visually. Results show that participants introduce partial compensation for the static nonlinearity. Furthermore, partial compensation was present even during open-loop tracking when participants were deprived of visual feedback of the position of the response cursor. This implies that participants are able to form an internal representation of the nonlinear relationship between movement of the joystick and the resulting movement of the response cursor.     

Temperament and problem solving in a population of adolescent guide dogs

It is often assumed that measures of temperament within individuals are more correlated to one another than to measures of problem solving. However, the exact relationship between temperament and problem-solving tasks remains unclear because large-scale studies have typically focused on each independently. To explore this relationship, we tested 119 prospective adolescent guide dogs on a battery of 11 temperament and problem-solving tasks. We then summarized the data using both confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory principal components analysis. Results of confirmatory analysis revealed that a priori separation of tests as measuring either temperament or problem solving led to weak results, poor model fit, some construct validity, and no predictive validity. In contrast, results of exploratory analysis were best summarized by principal components that mixed temperament and problem-solving traits. These components had both construct and predictive validity (i.e., association with success in the guide dog training program). We conclude that there is complex interplay between tasks of “temperament” and “problem solving” and that the study of both together will be more informative than approaches that consider either in isolation.