The Influence of Mothers’ Emotional Expressivity and Class Grouping on Chinese Preschoolers’ Emotional Regulation Strategies

Emotional regulation within the context of social situations refers to an individual’s ability to respond to emotions in socially acceptable ways in order to adapt quickly and to maintain good interpersonal relationships. Emotional regulation is a psychological characteristic at the core of social stability. The preschool period is a stage in which children’s emotional regulation develops rapidly. Because homes and preschools are the two main places where preschoolers grow and spend their time, their mothers and peers play key roles in their social interactions. Therefore, the present study explored how the emotional regulation strategies of preschool children in China are affected by children’s class grouping and their mothers’ emotional expressivity. The participants were 182 preschoolers (ages 3–5) who were recruited for this study. The Emotional Regulation Strategy Questionnaire and the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire were used to explore preschoolers’ emotional regulation strategies and their mothers’ emotional expressivity, respectively. The study results are as follows. (1) As they develop, preschool children use more positive emotional regulation strategies and fewer negative emotional regulation strategies. (2) Children in mixed-age classes use fewer passive reaction strategies than children in same-age classes do. For replacement activity strategies, only 4-year-old children in mixed-age classes score higher than children in same-age classes. (3) Mothers’ tendencies toward positive emotional expression can positively predict their children’s use of positive emotional regulation strategies, and their displays of negative emotions can positively predict their children’s use of negative emotional regulation strategies.     

Preschool Children's Collaborative Problem-Solving Interactions: The Role of Gender,Pair Type,and Task

The purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in problem-solving and conflict-resolution skills in preschool children. Children between 4 and 5 years of age completed 3 problem-solving tasks with either a same-sex or a different-sex peer. Children's verbal and nonverbal interactions were analyzed. Girls used mitigation more often than did boys. Mixed-sex dyads engaged in controlling verbal interactions more often than same-sex dyads. There were relationships between verbal and nonverbal behaviors and task success; these relationships also differed across pair types. The results of the study demonstrate that the gender differences in types of verbal interactions previously observed in preschool children's free play are also present in their problem-solving interactions and that children are able to alter the types of behaviors they use depending upon both partner gender and the type of task involved.     

Children’s Gender-Typed Activity Choices Across Preschool Social Contexts

Variability in children’s gender-typed activity preferences was examined across several preschool social contexts--solitary play, interactions with female peers, male peers, and both, and interactions with teachers. Participants were preschool children (N?=?264; 49?% girls, M age?=?52?months, range 37–60) attending Head Start classes in the Southwest United States. Seventy-three percent were Mexican/Mexican-American, and 82?% of families earned less than $30,000 per year. Children’s preferences for gender-typed activities varied as a function of their own gender and the identity of their interactional partners. Girls and boys preferred gender-typed activities (e.g., girls preferred feminine activities) when in solitary play but activity preferences changed across social contexts. Specifically, girls played significantly more with masculine activities when with male peers and boys played significantly more with feminine activities during interactions with teachers. Findings suggest that through social interactions with peers and teachers, children are exposed to a greater range of activities than what they experience when they play by themselves.     

Training generalized improvisation of tools by preschool children

The development of new, "creative" behaviors was examined in a problem-solving context. One form of problem solving, improvisation, was defined as finding a substitute to replace the specifically designated, but currently unavailable, tool ordinarily used to solve the problem. The study examined whether preschool children spontaneously displayed generalized improvisation skills, and if not, whether they could be trained to do so within different classes of tools. Generalization across different tool classes was monitored but not specifically trained. Five preschool children participated in individual sessions that first probed their skill at improvising tools, and later trained and probed generalized improvisation in one or more of three tool classes (Hammers, Containers, and Shoelaces), using a multiple-baseline design. All five children were trained with Hammers, two were trained in two classes, and two were trained in all three tool classes. Four of the five children improvised little in Baseline. During Training, all five showed increased generalized improvisation within the trained class, but none across classes. Tools fabricated by item combinations were rare in Baseline, but common in Training. Followup probes showed that the training effects were durable.     

我国3～6岁儿童个性类型及发展特点的研究

该文在以往中国儿童个性结构研究基础上,以问卷调查（n=927）方式,将层次聚类和迭代聚类两种方法结合起来,同时采用理论分析等方法最终确定我国3～6岁儿童的个性类型包括认可型、矛盾型、拒绝型及中间型四类。其中认可型属于积极个性类型,矛盾型和拒绝型属于消极个性类型。研究表明,中班到大班阶段是幼儿个性发展相对重要的时期。男女幼儿在多个个性维度及大部分具体特质方面存在着明显的性别差异。     

Social Interaction During Computer-based Activities: Comparisons by Number of Sessions, Gender, School-level, Gender Composition of the Group, and Computer-child Ratio

This study assessed the quality of social interactions that occur in group-based computer learning contexts. Gender comparisons of interactions were examined across 3 sessions with 116 preschoolers (M age?=?4.9 years) and 108 fifth and sixth-grade (M age?=?11.7 years) Canadian children from southwestern Ontario, when children had access to one computer per child (parallel computer) or one computer per group (integrated computer), and when they worked with same-gender or mixed-gender peers. Preschoolers engaged in more collaborative behaviors in mixed-gender than same-gender groups, while elementary children engaged in collaborative behaviors more often in integrated than parallel computer conditions. In mixed-gender groups, boys were more likely than girls to dominate the computer in elementary school while girls were more likely than boys to dominate the computer in preschool.     

Generalization of equivalence relations from photos to objects by preschool children

Generalized equivalence classes are stimulus classes that consist of equivalent stimuli and other physically similar class‐member stimuli. The present study evaluated whether preschool children would form equivalence classes among photos of abstract objects (2D) and show equivalence generalization to the corresponding objects (3D), printed photos (2D stimuli), and to black‐and‐white drawn pictures (2D stimuli). Six typically developing children were taught arbitrary relations to establish three 3‐member equivalence classes with 2D stimuli presented on a computer screen. AB‐AC baseline relations (for half of the participants) and AB‐BC relations (for the other half) were taught using a multiple‐probe design to assess taught and tested relations. After class formation, three types of generalization probes were conducted: generalization to 3D stimuli, generalization between 2D (printed photos) and 3D stimuli, and generalization to drawn pictures (2D). All of the participants formed the equivalence classes. Two participants met the criterion for all three generalization probe types. Two participants presented mixed results across tests, and two participants did not exhibit equivalence generalization. The results demonstrated equivalence generalization from 2D to 3D stimuli in preschool children, although the variability across participants suggests that such generalization cannot be assumed a priori.     

Risks and Outcomes Associated with Disorganized/Controlling Patterns of Attachment at Age Three in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development

Disorganized/controlling attachment in preschool has been found to be associated with maternal and child maladjustment, making it of keen interest in the study of psychopathology. Additional work is needed, however, to better understand disorganized/controlling attachment occurring as early as age three. The primary aims of this study were to evaluate risk factors and outcomes associated with disorganized/controlling behavior at age three and to evaluate the risk factors and outcomes differentiating the four subtypes of disorganized/controlling attachment. Analyses were conducted with the first two phases of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, a prospective study of 1,364 children from birth. At 36 months of age, across the attachment-relevant domains of maternal well-being, mother-child interactions, and child social adaptation, the disorganized/controlling group evidenced the most maladaptive patterns in comparison to both secure and insecure-organized groups. At 54 months of age, the disorganized/controlling group displayed the highest levels of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, as rated by mothers and teachers, and the lowest quality relationships with teachers. Significant differences found among the disorganized/controlling subtypes indicated that the behaviorally disorganized and controlling-punitive subtypes had more maladaptive patterns across variables than did the controlling-caregiving and controlling-mixed subtypes.     

Effects of classroom age composition on the play and social behaviors of preschool children

Preschool children enrolled in same- and mixed-age day care classrooms were observed during free play to examine patterns of social and play behavior. In mixed-age rooms, there was more interactive-functional play, for both older and younger children, more dramatic play and negative interactions for younger children, and a tendency for older children to be onlookers. In the same-age rooms, there was more conversation and more parallel-functional interaction for both older and younger children. While previous research has emphasized the benefits of mixed-age rooms, the current research indicates that some costs may also be involved.     

GENERALIZED IMITATION AND RESPONSE-CLASS FORMATION IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

An experimental analysis of imitation was conducted to examine the influence of response topography on generalization of imitation across three response types. Four children with autism were presented with both reinforced training trials and nonreinforced probe trials of models from vocal, toy-play, and pantomime response types. The probe trials were used to examine generalization within each response type. A multiple baseline design was used to analyze percentage of matching and nonmatching responses to models across response types. This study, the first to analyze imitative response classes in children with autism, showed that imitation generalized from reinforced training models to nonreinforced probe models within a response type, but it did not generalize across response types. Thus, functional response classes determined by topographical boundaries were exhibited within generalized imitation.     

汉语学龄前儿童正字法意识的发展

本研究选择北京地区幼儿园3岁、4岁、5岁儿童各31、48、33名, 采用单部件意识测验和部件位置及功能意识测验系统探查了学龄前儿童的正字法意识各个层面的发展状况。单部件意识测验包括部件替换、部件缺失和部件旋转三个部分; 部件位置及功能意识测验分为假字和非字两个部分, 而非字又包括两形非字和形声非字。结果发现单部件意识测验中, 5岁组儿童在部件替换水平上的得分显著高于3岁组儿童, 而3岁组与4岁组、4岁组与5岁组儿童之间无显著差异; 部件缺失和部件旋转水平上, 三个年龄段的儿童的得分表现出明显的增长趋势。部件位置及功能意识测验中, 假字得分在三个年龄段之间无显著差异; 非字得分随年龄增长显著提高。这些结果表明, 单部件意识在学前期处于不断发展的阶段, 其中对部件替换的非字的拒绝能力发展较早, 部件缺失和部件旋转非字的拒绝能力发展较晚; 部件位置及功能意识在学前期已经开始发展, 3岁儿童已经具有假字符合正字法规则的认识, 但对非字违反部件位置合法性和功能完整性的认识直到4岁左右才开始萌芽, 5岁还未成熟。     

Aggressive behavior in the home as a function of the age and sex of control-problem and normal children

This cross-sectional study investigated the ability of age, sex, and clinic-referred or nonreferred status of children to account for variance in the performance of aggressive behavior. Two clinic-referred groups and one normative group of children, composed of 137 males and 86 females between the ages of 3 and 13, were observed during unstructured family interactions in the home setting. Measures of aggressive/aversive child behavior included a composite total aversive behavior (TAB) score, a physical aggression (PAB) score, a verbal aggression (VAB) score, a passive-dependent behavior (PDB) score, and a disobedience (DSB) score. The total regression model and referral status were significant for each of these dependent variables. Age was significant for each variable except VAB, and sex was significant only for PAB. Significant age X group interactions were obtained for TAB, PDB, and DSB. Rates of behavior clearly differentiated groups, but the relationship of age and sex of child to behavior rates was the same across groups. Decreases in all behaviors with increasing age, except for VAB, replicate findings from previous studies in preschool settings. However, the meager sex differences failed to replicate more robust findings generally reported in previous research.     

Demographic factors affecting assertive and defensive behavior in preschool children: An ethological study

Observations were made of naturally occurring assertive and defensive behaviors among preschool children, using ethological methods. Four major classes of assertive behavior were studied: attempts to gain possession of objects, personal space intrusion, positive directives, and negative directives; in addition, behavior with aggressive characteristics was studied. The effects of the following demographic factors upon individual frequencies of assertive interaction initiation, probability of defense (to assertive initiations), and frequencies of aggressive behavior were examined: age, sex, birth order, sib group size, ethnic identity, number of parents in the home, father's occupational level, father's education, mother's employment (yes/no), mother's occupational level, mother's education. Results of the multiple regression analyses indicated the most widespread effects for ethnic identity, number of parents in home, age, and sex. The most assertive children tended to be nonwhite/black, older, male, and from single-parent homes. These results were fairly consistent across all classes of assertive behavior studied. There were only minor effects of social class on assertive behaviors, and the demographic characteristics of the sample indicated that the ethnic differences existed independent of social class. Limitations in interpreting the behaviors studied as indicating an underlying aggressive motivation are discussed.     

Effective Educational Inclusion of Students on the Autism Spectrum

Beginning with early efforts to prepare preschool aged children with autism to join their peers in regular education classes, there has been a continuing interest in including children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in regular education classes. A modest body of literature has explored ways to enhance the social interactions of children with ASDs and to more fully integrate them into academic and co-curricular experiences with their peers. These efforts have shown benefits to the children with ASDs as well as their peers in specifically defined situations. While there remains a serious lack of rigorous research in this area and a clear need for additional study regarding the long term impact of full inclusion on both groups of children, the existing research provides some interim strategies for professionals working with these children.     

Observational studies of retarded children with multiple stereotyped movements

Stereotyped movements, such as body rocking and hand gesturing, are common among developmentally delayed children. However, very little is known concerning the naturally occurring circumstances that produce variability in this type of responding. Three relatively long-term observational studies, involving seven preschool children, each of whom exhibited multiple stereotypies, were conducted to determine the extent to which the type of activity or setting had any effect upon the rates of these responses. Repeated observations were made of each child during a variety of school activities. In two studies, adult-child interactions were also recorded. The results showed that, in general, the particular activity greatly affected rates of stereotyped behavior, although there were some marked individual differences. Moreover, in two studies variability was apparent across sessions within a particular setting. For some of the children, there was evidence that their multiple stereotypies were functionally interrelated. Adult interactions, as recorded in one study, appear to be both quantitatively and qualitatively different for stereotyping as contrasted with nonstereotyping children. An environmental analysis employing a sequential model indicated that there were teacher behaviors that affected the frequency and/or conditional probability of the child's aberrant behavior.This research was supported by P.H.S. Grant No. HD-00973.     

Individual differences in motor development during early childhood: An MEG study

In a previous study, we reported the first measurements of pre‐movement and sensorimotor cortex activity in preschool age children (ages 3–5 years) using a customized pediatric magnetoencephalographic system. Movement‐related activity in the sensorimotor cortex differed from that typically observed in adults, suggesting that maturation of cortical motor networks was still incomplete by late preschool age. Here we compare these earlier results to a group of school age children (ages 6–8 years) including seven children from the original study measured again two years later, and a group of adults (mean age 31.1 years) performing the same task. Differences in movement‐related brain activity were observed both longitudinally within children in which repeated measurements were made, and cross‐sectionally between preschool age children, school age children, and adults. Movement‐related mu (8–12 Hz) and beta (15–30 Hz) oscillations demonstrated linear increases in amplitude and mean frequency with age. In contrast, movement‐evoked gamma synchronization demonstrated a step‐like transition from low (30–50 Hz) to high (70–90 Hz) narrow‐band oscillations, and this occurred at different ages in different children. Notably, pre‐movement activity (‘readiness fields’) observed in adults was absent in even the oldest children. These are the first direct observations of brain activity accompanying motor responses throughout early childhood, confirming that maturation of this activity is still incomplete by mid‐childhood. In addition, individual children demonstrated markedly different developmental trajectories in movement‐related brain activity, suggesting that individual differences need to be taken into account when studying motor development across age groups.     

The social behavior of preschool children at different developmental levels: Effects of group composition

The social participation, constructiveness of play, and communicative interactions of 4- to 6-year-old developmentally delayed and nondelayed preschool children were compared under conditions in which children interacted in play groups homogeneous with respect to developmental level and in heterogeneous play groups. A within-subjects design was utilized to assess the relatively immediate effects of group composition. Data for both children and teachers were analyzed separately for each of four developmental level groups and across two time periods. Although numerous differences were obtained as a function of developmental level and time, the only significant effect of group composition on children was reduced inappropriate play by severely delayed youngsters while interacting in heterogeneous play groups. No detrimental effects of heterogeneous grouping were observed for children at any developmental level. These results were discussed in terms of their importance in evaluating the impact of programs that mainstream young children.     

The perception of preschool social dominance

Children's and teachers' perception of social dominance was examined using a behavioral criterion for determining accuracy of verbal judgments. Video records of agonistic interactions were obtained during approximately 60 hours of free-play at two preschool centers. Analyses of social conflict episodes ending in submission revealed linear dominance structures for both groups. Dominance perception was assessed in two ways. Both teachers and children were asked to rank-order a subgroup of children according to dominance. They were also asked to select the more dominant children in a number of predetermined pairs. Results indicated that teachers could accurately judge dyadic dominance relations, and that accuracy among children varied as a function of their status within the group hierarchy. Findings have implications for social dominance assessment methodology, and for the issue of consensual versus ecological validity in developmental studies of social perception.