Tackling Germany’s Demographic Skills Shortage: Permanent Settlement Intentions of the Recent Wave of Labour Migrants from Non-European Countries

Confronted with structural demographic challenges, during the last decade European countries have adopted new labour migration policies. The sustainability of these policies largely depends on the intentions of migrants to stay in their country of destination for the long term or even permanently. Despite a growing dependence on skilled labour migrants, very little information exists about the dynamics of this new wave of migration and existing research findings with their focus on earlier migrant generations are hardly applicable today. The article comparatively tests major theoretical approaches accounting for permanent settlement intentions of Germany’s most recent labour migrants from non-European countries on the basis of a new administrative dataset. Although the recent wave of labour migrants is on average a privileged group with regard to their human capital, fundamentally different mechanisms are shaping their future migration intentions. In contrast to neo-classical expectations, a first path highlights economic factors that determine temporary stays of a creative class benefiting from opportunities of an increasingly international labour market. Instead, socio-cultural and institutional factors are the decisive determinants of a second path leading towards permanent settlement intentions. Three main factors—language skills, the family context and the legal framework—make migrants stay in Germany, providing important implications for adjusting and strengthening labour migration policies in Europe.     

Back and forth and in between: returning albanian migrants from Greece and Italy

On the basis of findings from a sample of Albanian migrants who have returned to their country of origin from Greece and Italy, we highlight that Greece attracts less skilled and less well off categories of migrants compared to Italy. However, the integration patterns tell a different story. In spite of the fact that Greece does not represent the first choice of Albanians seeking to migrate, and although those who go to Greece are not among the most qualified, nevertheless, they tend to adjust better to their host society and labour market. Furthermore, returning migrants from Greece seem to be better equipped and more likely to utilize the skills and knowledge acquired through migration compared to those returning from Italy.     

The Complementarity of the Irish and British Liberal Market Economies and Skilled EU Migration Since 2004 Compared to the Swedish Coordinated Market Economy

This paper sets out to explain why the UK and Ireland have received a higher proportion of skilled and highly educated European migrants since 2004 than Sweden, arguing that the features of the formers’ liberal market economies as described in the Varieties of Capitalism literature are more complementary to skilled temporary migration than those of Sweden’s coordinated market economy. The flexible labour market, the short-term employment relationships, the emphasis on general education and the centrality of competition in the Irish and British labour markets are identified as the main features attracting skilled temporary European migrants. This stands in contrast to Sweden’s emphasis on specialised vocational training, long-term employment relationships and a rigid, less accessible labour market. These findings imply that European coordinated market economies, in need of skilled migrants due to demographic changes, have to create strong institutional incentives to compete with liberal market economies for skilled migrants.     

Linguodidactic Profiling in Teaching Russian as a Foreign Language to Labour Migrants

The main purpose of this exploratory study is to work out and describe the labour migrant’s linguodidactic profile, to verify its didactic capacity of an instrument of pedagogic measurement of social, cognitive, ethnocultural, educational and other significant characteristics of migrants affecting the efficiency of the Russian language training courses. The interdisciplinary methodology of the research integrates principles and approaches of methods for teaching Russian as a foreign language, interdidactics, migration sociolology, culturology, anthropology and cognitive science. The Russian language training courses have a strong potential for linguocultural adaptation and integration of labour migrants because the language functions as a depository and translator of the hosting nation’s moral norms and values. The effectiveness of the Russian language training course depends upon the strict consideration of all significant characteristics of its addressees, i.e. labour migrants. These characteristics were identified and then integrated into the linguodidactic profile which was taken as a basis for the language training course. The didactic capacity of the linguodidactic profile was proved on the example of language teaching and testing of migrants from the Republic of Tajikistan, since foreigners from this country form the majority (47%) of labour immigration flows to the Russian Federation. The role and capacity of the linguodidactic profile in teaching Russian as a foreign language have been verified experimentally. The analyses and comparisons of the final examination results proved the efficiency of the training course worked out with consideration for the labour migrant’s typical linguodidactic profile and, consequently, its high didactic capacity.     

Rights and Restrictions: Temporary Agricultural Migrants and Trade Unions’ Activism in Canada and Spain

In the last two decades, temporary worker programs have experienced an unprecedented expansion as instruments of what is defined as the migration management approach. Various migrant rights activists have voiced concerns about the treatment of temporary migrants in these programs and taken initiative to advance their rights. For some migrant rights advocates, it is the temporary nature of migration that is primarily responsible for the rights deficit. Yet, other migrant rights activists accept the temporariness of labour migration while trying to ensure that migrants receive legal protections for their work rights and that these protections are enforced. Trade unions are among the actors who try to protect and advance temporary migrants’ labour rights, but their role in supporting or challenging the principles of temporary migration governance has been neglected in the scholarly literature. The article addresses this gap by highlighting the divergent position of Canadian and Spanish Unions on temporariness of this type of migration. As the article argues, the difference is related to the following four factors: (1) the degree to which the unions in question are institutionally embedded in immigration policy-making, (2) the social environment (that is, discourses on temporariness advanced by other unions and grassroots organizations), (3) the degree of protectionism unions express vis-à-vis new immigrant flows and (4) whether regulated temporary migration is contrasted with permanent or unauthorized migration.     

Beyond the ‘Migrant Network’? Exploring Assistance Received in the Migration of Brazilians to Portugal and the Netherlands

This paper explores the tenability of three important critiques to the ‘migrant network’ approach in migration studies: (1) the narrow focus on kin and community members, which connect prospective migrants in origin countries with immigrants in the destination areas, failing to take due account of sources of assistance beyond the ‘migrant network’ like institutional or online sources; (2) that it is misleading to assume a general pattern in the role of migrant networks in migration, regardless of contexts of arrival or departure, including the scale and history of migration or the immigration regime; and (3) that ‘migrant networks’ are not equally relevant to all migrants, and that important differences may exist between labour migrants and other types of migrants like family migrants or students. Drawing on survey data on the migration of Brazilians to Portugal and the Netherlands we find support for these critiques but also reaffirm the relevance of ‘migrant networks’.     

Twice Migrants in Canada: Who Are They and How Do They Perform Economically?

Immigrants known as “twice migrants” are those who arrive in Canada via an intermediate country, that is, not directly from their country of birth. With a focus on large contemporary immigrant groups in Canada—South Asians, Chinese and Filipinos in particular—this study develops socio-economic profiles of twice migrants and assesses their economic performance in comparison to that of direct migrants. The study uses custom tables of multiple national level datasets as well as qualitative interviews with a selected group of twice-migrant families to arrive at its findings. The results show that relative to direct migrants, twice migrants were older, more likely to speak a Canadian official language, slightly more educated and more skilled. These human capital characteristics did not however fully translate into economic success. Political and economic situations both in the country of birth and the country of last place of residence affect the flow of twice migration. Lack of job opportunities in Canada forced many twice migrant families to split between two countries.     

Immigration Policies in Italy: Their Impact on the Lives of First-Generation Moroccan and Egyptian Migrants

This paper analyzes the impact of Italian immigration policies on migrants’ lives. Policies and changes in policies can affect migrants’ capabilities to stabilize themselves in the host country, in terms of legal residence and secure labor conditions, as well as their chances of becoming part of the host society. We argue that, together with border controls, these are crucial ways through which immigration policies may have the postulated effects on the lives of migrants. We use data from 59 in-depth interviews conducted with first-generation Moroccan and Egyptian migrants living in two Italian cities, Turin and Rome, in the period 2011–2013. The results show that Italian immigration policies do not successfully control migration inflow, but effectively hinder the stability of migrants’ legal status and the status transition from temporary residence to permanent residence and subsequent Italian citizenship. In this way, Italian immigration policies largely affect migrants’ capabilities to be part of the host country; this gets in the way of integration, social cohesion, and future migration projects.     

Return Migrant or Diaspora: An Exploratory Study of New-Generation Chinese–Canadian Youth Working in Hong Kong

The circular movement of migrants between their homelands and adopted countries has problematized the previous linear understanding of return migration. However, the concept of circular migration tends to apply to migrants whose movement is enabled by their extensive pre-migration connections with their homelands. In this paper, we report findings of a study on a group of new-generation Chinese–Canadian youth working in Hong Kong. Although, like many return migrants, this group of young people had economic reasons for moving to Hong Kong (their parents' homeland), they do not position themselves as return migrants. Instead, they have kept a strong Canadian identity by maintaining unique friendship circles and perceiving Canada as a home to which they will one day return. We highlight in this paper some implications of their experiences for transnational migration studies.     

Regional Disparities in Employment of High-Skilled Foreigners – Determinants and Options for Labour Migration Policy in Germany

We investigate the regional disparities in high-skilled foreign employment in Germany. The importance of different factors that influence highly qualified migrants’ decision to migrate to specific regions and especially the role of labour migration policy is analysed. Our results show that labour market variables and the supply of tertiary education are important for the location choice. Based on these empirical results, we discuss options of decentralised labour migration policy in Germany.     

Family social support during the predeparture period: The experience of British migrants

This study explored the stress, wellbeing and social support of predeparture British migrants to New Zealand. The main research questions addressed the relationship between family support and psychological outcomes, differences in migration desire between couples, and the impact of extended family support. A survey recruited 95 participants from online forums for migrants to New Zealand and results indicated that support from immediate family was related to better wellbeing and lower stress. Migrants who considered themselves the driving force behind the move reported significantly more stress and less family support than migrants who had partners who were equally enthusiastic about the move abroad. Sojourners perceived more support from extended family than did migrants who intended to leave permanently. The most difficult parts of the migration process were leaving loved ones, logistical demands, and uncertainty. The most positive parts of the process were adventure and becoming closer as a family. Overall, migration stress and coping began well before departure from the country of origin.     

Drifting Here and There But Going Nowhere: the Case of Migrants from Turkey in Milan in the Era of Global Economic Crisis

This paper argues that migration is becoming a protracted situation for the significant part of migrants in parallel to the deepening world economic crisis. Migrants keep drifting from one place to another in the face of future uncertainties. The paper analyses the protracted feature of migration, which is becoming increasingly salient through a new conceptualization, and links it with the world economic crisis and capital accumulation processes. The argument is supported by the data obtained from a field research implemented in Milan, Italy, in 2013 on migrants from Turkey. The Italian economy went into deep recession in 2009 when it was overlapped by a worldwide economic crisis. This situation led migrant workers to lose their jobs. Hence, self-employment of some Turkish migrants was directly related to the deepening economic crisis. Not only comparatively new Turkish migrants but also migrants who spent some years in Milan cannot see a secure future in there and think of migrating yet again.     

“Two Steps Forward,One Step Back”: Zimbabwean Migration and South Africa’s Regularising Programme (the ZDP)

South Africa’s announcement and implementation of a legalising amnesty under the Zimbabwe Documentation Project (ZDP) in 2010 was lauded as a step away from the laissez-faire approach to Zimbabwean immigration. The amnesty, granting migrants stay, work, study and business operation rights in the country on 4-year permits, was clouded by uncertainties and exclusions and implementation hassles. This article explores this legalising amnesty in relation to trends in Zimbabwean immigration over the years, noting in particular the complexity and fluidity in migration patterns. The article highlights these complexities and how they expose the limitations of any ad hoc and short-term approach to managing complex immigration flows. It argues that such an approach fails to recognise differences in migration trends over time and space, sources of migration and migrant’s strategies, and, more importantly, that these factors result in different migrants with differing needs. As way of conclusion, the article suggests that any progressive immigration strategy on Zimbabwean immigration should not only build on the “Temporary Immigration Exemption Status for Zimbabweans” of 2009 and embrace ideals of diversity, inclusivity and openness but also draw upon existing efforts at regional cooperation and integration.     

Do First- and Second-Generation Migrants Stay Longer in Social Assistance Than Natives in Belgium?

In many European countries, migrants are overrepresented in social assistance. In Belgium, at least 70% of social assistance beneficiaries are first- or second-generation migrants, as natives are often eligible for a social insurance benefit. Lower exit rates among migrants relative to natives could raise concern about the labour market inclusion of beneficiaries, as well as the financial sustainability and solidarity basis of the welfare state. This paper analyses whether migrants remain longer in social assistance than natives and whether migrants vary in their timing of exit by migration-history characteristics. We use longitudinal data from the social assistance administration linked to other administrative sources, including detailed information about migration histories of migrants. Using event history analysis, we track the exits from social assistance for 22,620 beneficiaries in the period June 2005–December 2009. We find that migrants have substantially longer median durations than natives. Controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, benefit and work histories, we find that most migrant groups have (slightly) lower exit rates than natives. Asylum seekers stay substantially longer in social assistance whereas migrants with longer durations of residence have shorter benefit periods than recent migrants. Second-generation migrants do not stay longer in social assistance than natives.     

The Roman Catholic Church of Norway and migration challenges

Ever since its re-establishment in Norway in 1843, the Roman Catholic Church has grown steadily. On 1 January 2017, the church had a total membership of approximately 150,000. The reason for the latest, and certainly largest, wave of Catholic migrants to settle in Norway is labour migration resulting from the eastward expansion of the EU in 2004, when Poland and Lithuania joined. About half the Catholic population of Norway originates from these two countries. This article focuses on the following research question: How does the Roman Catholic Church in Norway, represented by sisters in religious communities, priests and ecclesiastical employees, respond to the large influx of Catholic migrants to Norway? The study is based on a qualitative survey consisting of semi-structured interviews with 10 informants, all religious sisters, priests or ecclesiastical employees. Although some informants admit that the strong growth resulting from migration has posed problems, such as tendencies to form ‘parallel congregations’ based on ethnic origin, most expressed a positive view of this influx of migrants and of the future of the Catholic Church in Norway.     

The Socio-economic Contribution of African Migrants to their Home and Host Countries: The Case of Ghanaian Residents in Flanders, Belgium

The issue of South?CNorth migration, especially Africa?CEuropean Union (EU) migration, has moved to the center stage of international development debate. Unfortunately, however, interests and arguments by policy-makers, development agencies, and citizens of the EU mainly focus on the consequences of migration on the ??receiving?? societies. The real causes of migration from Africa and migrants?? contribution to the social and economic development of both the ??sending?? and ??receiving?? countries have not been objectively discussed. Provision of labor to EU member countries, remittances, and financial transfers to and investments made by African migrants in their respective home countries are essential elements in the African?CEU migration and development cooperation debate. It is estimated that South?CNorth migrants?? remittances to developing countries increased from US$2 billion in 1970 to US$71 billion in 2001. Moreover, financial flows emanating from African migrants in the developed countries significantly contribute to the development of the continent. In order to concretize and objectify the discussion, a socio-economic survey was conducted on a representative sample of Ghanaian migrants and their families in the Flemish Community in Belgium. Extensive literature review on migration, administration of questionnaires to Ghanaians resident in Flanders, Belgium, and consultations with African and international experts on migration and international development cooperation were the methods used for this investigation. The paper identifies and analyzes the factors that ??push?? and ??pull?? Ghanaians to migrate to Belgium, the EU, and the developed countries in general. The socio-economic situation of Ghanaian migrants in Flanders and their contribution to the sustainable development of Belgium, the EU, and Ghana are rigorously analyzed. Furthermore, the challenges posed by South?CNorth migration are identified and appropriate and effective win-win mitigation strategies proposed for redressing the problematic in a sustainable way.     

Racism,Xenophobia, and Migration in Italy,a Post-Catholic Country

This paper looks at the present situation of xenophobia and racism in Italy through the lenses of land and displacement. It examines the relationship between the homeland and the phenomenon of migration – internal and international – from the beginning of the unitary unified state of Italy (1861) and the Catholic identity of Italian society. Colonialism opened the door to disdain for Black people, while fascism decreed racial laws against Jews without opposition from the Catholic hierarchy. After the Second World War, the Italian Republic banned any form of racism; but more recently the fear of the stranger has led to intolerance of migrants arriving in Italy because of war, violence, hunger, and poverty in their homelands. While Pope Francis, Italian bishops, and many Catholic associations and individuals have called for an attitude toward migrants based on the gospel, sentiments of racism and hate against foreigners are widely present among the population of a formerly Catholic country.     

Forced migration and resettlement: Its impact on families and individuals

An increasing number of families are forced to migrate as a result of political turmoil, civil wars, and ethnic cleansing. This paper describes the impact of forced migration on individuals and their families. We suggest that forced migrants reject the new culture while their children are likely to embrace it. This discrepancy between the old values of the migrants and the values to the new culture espoused by their children is a frequent source of intrafamilial tension. We also describe a second acculturation process that takes place when forced migrants return to their country of origin. Families who migrate back to the country of origin realize, often to their surprise, that both they and their country of origin have changed significantly.     

The Political Justification of Migrant Workers in Alberta,Canada

Considering a series of oil-driven economic booms, the use of inter-provincial and international migrant labour has become an important part of labour market policy in the Canadian province of Alberta. The increased use of temporary foreign workers is controversial. Narrative analysis of legislators’ statements in the legislature and the press between 2000 and 2011 reveals the government using three narratives to justify policies encouraging greater use of foreign migrant workers: (1) labour shortages require migrant workers, (2) migrants do not threaten Canadian jobs and (3) migrants are not being exploited. Close scrutiny of each narrative demonstrates them to be largely invalid. This suggests a significant disconnect between the real and espoused reasons for the significant changes to labour market policy, changes that advantage employers and disadvantage both Canadian and foreign workers. The findings are relevant to understand the political dynamics of economically related migration.