强大的错误记忆效应:词表呈现时间与呈现方式的影响

本研究采用DRM范式(Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm),考察了词表项目的呈现时间与呈现方式对错误记忆效应的影响。结果发现,被试对关键诱饵的错误再认受到学习阶段词表项目的呈现方式的影响,表现为所有项目随机呈现条件下的错误再认明显低于分组呈现条件,尤其是在20ms的随机呈现条件下,观察到了对关键诱饵的最低错误再认率。说明在对词表项目的编码阶段产生了对关键诱饵的连续激活,而对关键诱饵的错误记忆则是基于连续激活的不断累积的结果,当词表项目的随机呈现阻断了连续激活过程时,便会有效降低错误记忆效应。而且,在所有实验条件下均发现了错误记忆效应产生中所伴随的强烈主观体验,证实了错误记忆是一种强大的效应。     

错误记忆的产生是否依赖对词表的有意加工：无意识激活的证据

使用DRM范式考察了错误记忆产生过程中无意识激活的存在与否。通过操纵实验任务和呈现方式,导致被试对学习词表的无意加工和不同水平的有意加工。结果发现,无意加工时所产生的对关键诱饵的无意识激活足以导致错误记忆效应,说明对词表的有意加工并非错误记忆产生所必需。随着对词表有意加工水平的提高,多次无意识激活的累积可导致增强的错误记忆效应,且表现出与真实记忆的共变,而阻断连续激活累积的因素可有效降低错误记忆     

通道匹配和加工水平对DRM范式错误记忆的影响

本研究采用2×2×2被试间设计,分别对视觉或听觉通道呈现的DRM词表进行了高水平或低水平的加工,此后又在视觉或听觉通道上,进行了针对DRM词表旧有项目、关键诱饵和无关项目的再认测验。实验证明了DRM范式中错误记忆的稳定存在,并且错误记忆受通道变换和加工水平变化的影响。通道不匹配时的错误记忆效应要大于二者匹配时的;通道匹配时,视觉呈现所导致的错误记忆效应要大于听觉呈现的;通道不匹配时,由听觉学习转到视觉测验时所导致的错误记忆效应要大于由视觉学习转到听觉测验时的。实验表明通道效应和加工水平效应是相互作用的。     

汉字错误记忆的形、音编码差异研究

采取DRM范式,要求被试判断词表项目的字形结构或音调,从而间接学习词表,考察了关联性、不同编码方式和测验情境（测验次数、测验词颜色两个变量）对真实和错误记忆的影响。实验发现：（1）随着关联性的增加,未学词的错误再认率也增加,说明关联性是引发错误记忆的必要条件;（2）字形判断比字音判断下的错误再认率要高,说明汉字中形—义联结可能比音—义联结更加紧密;（3）测验情境对真实和错误记忆影响并不相同,表明两者虽然同源,但具有完全不同的机制。     

自尊和同伴压力对关联性错误记忆的影响

目的:探索不同自尊水平的初中生在无同伴压力或有同伴压力下完成记忆任务时,产生的关联性错误记忆情况.方法:使用自尊量表(SES)从78名中学生中挑出高自尊和低自尊学生42人,采用错误记忆研究的DRM范式,探讨自尊、同伴压力对关联性错误记忆的影响.结论:(1)关键诱饵的错误再认率高于有关项目和无关项目,有关项目的错误再认率高于无关项目；(2)自尊和同伴压力对关联性错误记忆会产生影响,高自尊和低自尊被试在有无同伴压力条件下对三种未学习词的错误再认率有所不同；在有同伴压力条件下,三种未学习词的错误再认率在高自尊被试和低自尊被试间都不存在显著差异,产生了记忆一致性效应.     

汉字字形关联对错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式,研究汉字字形关联对错误记忆的影响。实验以占汉字主体的形声字为材料。学习阶段使用了两类字表:在一半字表中,各字表内汉字及相应的关键诱饵具有相同形旁;另一半字表中,各字表内汉字及相应关键诱饵具有相同声旁。再认测试中,被试对两类关键诱饵均表现出了明显的错误记忆,并且其效应大小与字表汉字相似度成正比。这些结果说明,汉字的字形关联可以诱发错误记忆现象,并且这种错误记忆效应由汉字间字形相似度决定。     

启动情绪和呈现方式对错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式(Deese-Roediger-Mc Dermott paradigm),考察了启动情绪状态下词表项目的呈现方式对错误记忆的影响。结果发现:(1)启动情绪主效应不显著。(2)词表项目的呈现方式主效应显著。(3)启动情绪与呈现方式间存在交互作用。在愉快启动情绪状态下分组呈现的错误再认率明显高于随机呈现条件;当词表项目分组呈现时,三种情绪状态下的错误再认率有显著差异,其中愉快启动情绪下的错误再认率最高,其次是悲伤情绪,最低的为对照组—非启动情绪状态。说明启动的愉快情绪增强了对关键诱饵的连续激活累积效应,从而导致对关键诱饵较高的错误再认率。     

测验情境对错误记忆的影响

本研究采用DRM范式,通过两个实验考察测验情境对错误记忆的影响,结果发现：（1）在两个实验中均产生了错误记忆现象：实验一关键诱饵的错误再认率为M=0．514,SD=0233;实验二关键诱饵的总错误再认率M=0．510,SD=0．215：（2）学习词表的语义关联越大,错误再认率越低：实验一项目语义关联程度主效应显著,F（1,84）=6．145．MSE=0．312．P=0．015;实验二,F（1,84）=5．143,MSE=0．225,P=0．026;（3）关键诱饵的位置造成了不同的情境效应：实验一,关键诱饵出现在第一个位置和第二个位置之间错误再认率差异显著（P=0．024）;实验二,关键诱饵出现第二个位置和第三个位置之间的错误再认率边缘显著（P=0．052）。该研究揭示了情境对错误记忆的影响。     

汉语双字词语音关联对错误记忆的影响

研究运用DRM范式,以具有语音关联的汉语双字词为材料,采用2（语音类型）×3（词语类型）被试内实验设计,考察汉语双字词语音关联对错误记忆的影响。结果表明：（1）被试对诱饵词的错误再认率显著高于对填充词的错误再认率,说明汉语双字词语音关联能够诱发错误记忆;（2）双字词表与单字词表引发的语音关联性错误记忆效应相当,小于语义及字形关联的错误记忆效应;（3）尾音关联词表中词语再认率高于首音关联词表。     

项目特异性加工和关系加工对非熟练中-英双语者跨语言错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式进行跨语言错误记忆的研究较为鲜见, 而且得出了许多不同的结果, 关于错误记忆跨语言产生的理论解释也是各执己见。研究以非熟练中-英双语大学生为被试, 采用DRM范式对非熟练中-英双语者的跨语言错误记忆进行了研究。在2个实验中, 分别探讨了项目特异性加工和关系加工条件下, 语义激活的不同水平对跨语言错误记忆的影响。结果发现：1)非熟练中-英双语者也存在跨语言的错误记忆; 2)在项目特异性加工和关系加工条件下, 相同语言内与不同语言间发生关键诱词的错误再认的结果是不同的; 3)只在项目特异性加工条件下, 长词表比短词表会诱发更多的对关键诱词的错误再认。研究结果支持了激活-监测理论。     

不同情绪效价的DRM词表对错误记忆的影响

请49名在校大学生对自编的36个具有不同情绪效价的DRM词表进行评定,再以60名在校大学生为实验对象考察不同情绪效价的DRM词表对错误记忆的影响。结果发现,(1) 负性和中性DRM词表产生的错误记忆量显著高于正性DRM词表;(2) 被试在“记得/知道/猜测”判断上对负性和中性词表的关键诱饵倾向于“知道”,而对正性词表的关键诱饵更倾向于“记得”。结果表明,DRM词表本身所具有的情绪与人为诱发的情绪,对错误记忆的影响具有不同的性质和特点。     

False memory in a short-term memory task

The Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM; Roediger & McDermott, 1995) paradigm reliably elicits false memories for critical nonpresented words in recognition tasks. The present studies used a Sternberg (1966) task with DRM lists to determine whether false memories occur in short-term memory tasks and to assess the contribution of latency data in the measurement of false memories. Subjects studied three, five, or seven items from DRM lists and responded to a single probe (studied or nonstudied). In both experiments, critical lures were falsely recognized more often than nonpresented weak associates. Latency data indicated that correct rejections of critical lures were slower than correct rejections of weakly related items at all set sizes. False alarms to critical lures were slower than hits to list items. Latency data can distinguish veridical and false memories in a short-term memory task. Results are discussed in terms of activation-monitoring models of false memory.     

Measuring the activation level of critical lures in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm

In four experiments, the activation level in memory of critical lures was assessed after encoding Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) lists. The results demonstrated that studying longer, 14-item lists resulted in superadditive priming of the lures because they were more available in memory than truly studied items. Studying shorter DRM lists resulted in activation levels of the lures that was similar to studied items. Collectively, the results suggest that a first stage in creating false memories with the DRM paradigm is making the critical lures highly available in memory during list encoding. Moreover, the results suggest that false memories are likely to have occurred at the time a list is studied by a mechanism such as an implicit associative response, but a monitoring phase at retrieval is acknowledged that could be used to avoid them. Other theoretical accounts are also considered.     

Re-exposure to studied items at test does not influence false recognition

In two experiments, we investigated whether re-exposure to previously studied items at test affects false recognition in the DRM paradigm. Furthermore, we examined whether exposure to the critical lure at test influences memory for subsequently presented study items. In Experiment 1, immediately following each studied DRM list, participants were given a recognition test. The tests were constructed such that the number of studied items preceding the critical lure varied from zero to five. Neither false recognition for critical lures nor accurate memory for studied items was affected by this manipulation. In Experiment 2, we replicated this pattern of results under speeded conditions at test. Both experiments confirm that exposure to previously studied items at test does not affect true or false recognition in the DRM paradigm. This pattern strongly suggests that retrieval processes do not influence false recognition in the DRM paradigm.     

Compelling untruths: The effect of retention interval on content borrowing and vivid false memories

False memories are sometimes vivid and detailed. We proposed that the details that come to be associated with false memories may be produced by a process called content borrowing. In content borrowing, details from presented items are erroneously borrowed to corroborate the occurrence of the false memory item. In the present research we used think-out-loud protocols at both study and test to provide evidence for content borrowing in the DRM paradigm. We also demonstrated that content borrowing was more common after a 2-week delay, and was more common for critical lures than for missing exemplars.     

Re-exposure to studied items at test does not influence false recognition

In two experiments, we investigated whether re-exposure to previously studied items at test affects false recognition in the DRM paradigm. Furthermore, we examined whether exposure to the critical lure at test influences memory for subsequently presented study items. In Experiment 1, immediately following each studied DRM list, participants were given a recognition test. The tests were constructed such that the number of studied items preceding the critical lure varied from zero to five. Neither false recognition for critical lures nor accurate memory for studied items was affected by this manipulation. In Experiment 2, we replicated this pattern of results under speeded conditions at test. Both experiments confirm that exposure to previously studied items at test does not affect true or false recognition in the DRM paradigm. This pattern strongly suggests that retrieval processes do not influence false recognition in the DRM paradigm.     

Compelling untruths: the effect of retention interval on content borrowing and vivid false memories

False memories are sometimes vivid and detailed. We proposed that the details that come to be associated with false memories may be produced by a process called content borrowing. In content borrowing, details from presented items are erroneously borrowed to corroborate the occurrence of the false memory item. In the present research we used think-out-loud protocols at both study and test to provide evidence for content borrowing in the DRM paradigm. We also demonstrated that content borrowing was more common after a 2-week delay, and was more common for critical lures than for missing exemplars.     

The effects of increasing semantic-associate list length on the Deese–Roediger–McDermott false recognition memory: Dual false-memory process in retrieval from sub- and supraspan lists

In this study, the number of semantic associates in Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) lists was varied from 4 to 14 in a modified Sternberg paradigm. The false alarm (FA) and correct rejection (CR) reaction time (RT)/memory-set size (MSS) functions of critical lures showed a cross-over interaction at approximately MSS 7, suggesting a reversal of the relative dominance between these two responses to the critical lure at this point and also indicating the location of the boundary between the sub- and supraspan MSS. For the subspan lists, FA to critical lures was slower than CR, suggesting a slow, strategic mechanism driving the false memory. Conversely, for the supraspan lists, critical lure FA was faster than its CR, suggesting a spontaneous mechanism driving the false memory. Results of two experiments showed that an automatic, fast, and a slow, controlled process could be error-prone or error-corrective, depending on the length of the DRM memory list. Thus there is a dual retrieval process in false memory as in true memory. The findings can be explained by both the activation/monitoring and the fuzzy-trace theories.     

Mood-congruent false memories in the DRM paradigm

This study investigated the creation of mood-congruent false memories within the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm using recall and recognition of critical lures as performance measures. Participants (n=93) were randomly assigned to three mood-induction conditions (positive, negative and control) and were presented with positive, negative and neutral DRM word lists in audio form. We predicted that intrusion errors of the critical lures would be higher in the mood-congruent conditions. Results confirmed this prediction and extended previous DRM research by showing that already high false memory rates were increased when the valence of the lures matched the mood-induction condition. Furthermore, participants made more “remember” judgements for the emotion critical lures in their mood-congruent conditions. Discussion draws on spreading activation explanations of DRM findings, and considers how moods could increase activation of non-presented information.