Self-Sacrificial Behavior and its Explanation in Terms of Max Scheler’s Concept of Spirit

One of the key concepts of the German philosopher Max Scheler (1874–1928) is his concept of spirit. He understands spirit as one of several naturally functioning human mental agencies, such as consciousness, will, memory, etc. That is, he treats the mental agency of spirit in a scientific way and avoids any esoteric or religious connotations that this peculiar term may involve. The nature of human spirit, according to Scheler, is the ability to withstand and deliberately redirect biological imperatives and instinctive drives, up to the point of purposefully throwing away one’s own life. The presence of spirit constitutes the essence of the human being that differentiates him qualitatively from all animals. In this article, I argue that it is human spirit that plays the determinative role in causing heroic and self-sacrificial behavior. I also argue that the individual human spirit experiences its inherent development, thus having several rather dissimilar stages and manifestations. I discuss the meaning that the term ‘spirit’ has in the English and the American philosophical and psychological traditions and the meaning of the corresponding term ‘der Geist’ in the German traditions. The specific English-language understanding of the term ‘spirit’, compared to its German counterpart ‘der Geist’, namely, less scientific and more religious and esoteric and metaphorical for the former, makes it alien and almost unusable in the English and American traditions. The linguistic difference leads to the misunderstanding of some very important ideas brought by the concept of spirit as introduced by Scheler. My purpose is to overcome this discrepancy and omission and to introduce the notion and the concept of spirit, in their scientific understanding, into the arsenal of modern English-language cognitive science, psychology, and philosophy in order to provide for the full explanatory force of the hitherto neglected concept of spirit.     

Gender Differences in Condom Use Behavior? The Role of Power and Partner-Type

The primary goal of this study was to experimentally investigate the theory of gender and power (Wingood and DiClemente, Health Education and Behavior 27:539–565, 2000) in order to better understand gender differences in condom use behavior. The influence of relationship power (equal or low), partner-type (serious or casual), and gender on difficulty implementing condom use was explored using experimental vignettes. Heterosexual, sexually active, undergraduate students from a private university in the United States (N?=?203) indicated how “difficult” it would be to implement condom use in a variety of situations. Results revealed a significant main effect for power and partner-type, qualified by a significant three-way interaction. The consistency of these findings with the predictions of the theory and methodological limitations are discussed.     

It’s About Time: The Role of Locomotion in Withdrawal Behavior

Introduction

Locomotion is defined as a self-regulatory orientation that involves committing personal resources to initiate and maintain goal-directed activities Kruglanski et al. (J Personal Social Psychol 79: 793, 2000). This article examines the relation between locomotion and withdrawal behaviors in organizational setting.

Materials and Methods

In the first study, police officers’ (N = 203) locomotion was negatively related to self-report measures of absenteeism and lateness. In the second study, bank employees’ (N = 297) locomotion was negatively related to withdrawal behaviors as evinced by organizational records including hours of absenteeism, lateness, and early departures. In the third study, a two-wave research design replicated the results of Study 2 by demonstrating that telecommunication employees’ (N = 69) locomotion measured at Time 1 was negatively related to their respective withdrawal behaviors 3 months later at Time 2.

Conclusion

Overall, these three studies support the notion that locomotion impacts a plurality of withdrawal behaviors in different organizational settings. Consequently, locomotion can be a pertinent and valuable psychometric tool for managers and human resources interested in improving organizational effectiveness.

     

The Effect of Bilingualism and Trilingualism on Metacognitive Processing: Detrimental or Beneficial?

Research in multilingualism has shown that bilinguals have enhanced executive function (e.g., Donnelly et al. in Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the cognitive science society 2015; Green in Bilingualism Lang Cognit 1(02):67–81, 1998.  https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728998000133); however, this with many other areas in multilingualism have been questioned like their non-verbal reasoning or their metacognitive ability. This study attempts to explore learning more than one languages in the field of metacognitive abilities. Three groups of monolinguals, bilinguals, and trilinguals were explored to examine the effect of language learning on enhancing or weakening accuracy and response time in metacognitive processing. Conducting dot discrimination task, we found that multilingualism might have some advantages in this field. As cognition and metacognitive abilities demonstrated no positive correlation in this study, we might conclude that executive functioning can not bring about higher order functioning for the individuals. Nevertheless, monolinguals did the task in the least period of time with the least accuracy. Trilinguals, on the contrary, could respond more accurately with an average speed. Accuracy, difficulty, and response time choice in metacognitive processing were discussed for each group. It is concluded that multilingualism might have different effects on higher-order decision making abilities.     

The Role of Background Behavior in Televised Debates: Does Displaying Nonverbal Agreement and/or Disagreement Benefit Either Debater?

ABSTRACT

This study examined the effects of background nonverbal behavior displayed with the purpose of undermining one's opponent in televised debates. Students watched one of four versions of a televised debate. In each, while the speaking debater appeared on the main screen, subscreens displayed her nonspeaking opponent's background nonverbal behavior. In one version, the non-speaking debater remained “stone faced” during her opponent's speech, while in the other three she nonverbally displayed occasional disagreement, nearly constant disagreement, or both agreement and disagreement. After viewing the debates, students rated the debaters' credibility, appropriateness, objectivity, and debate skills, in addition to judging who won the debate. Analysis indicated that background nonverbal behavior influenced audience perceptions of debaters' credibility, appropriateness, objectivity, debate skill, and the extent to which the debate was won. These results suggest that adding nonverbal agreement to expressions of nonverbal disagreement do not reduce the negative impacts of communicating disagreement nonverbally during an opponent's speech and may in fact further decrease the audiences' perception of a debater's credibility and overall performance.     

The Role of the Corpus Callosum in Interhemispheric Transfer of Information: Excitation or Inhibition?

The corpus callosum is the major neural pathway that connects homologous cortical areas of the two cerebral hemispheres. The nature of how that interhemispheric connection is manifested is the topic of this review; specifically, does the corpus callosum serve to communicate an inhibitory or excitatory influence on the contralateral hemisphere? Several studies take the position that the corpus callosum provides the pathway through which a hemisphere or cortical area can inhibit the other hemisphere or homologous cortical area in order to facilitate optimal functional capacity. Other studies suggest that the corpus callosum integrates information across cerebral hemispheres and thus serves an excitatory function in interhemispheric communication. This review examines these two contrasting theories of interhemispheric communication. Studies of callosotomies, callosal agenesis, language disorders, theories of lateralization and hemispheric asymmetry, and comparative research are critically considered. The available research, no matter how limited, primarily supports the notion that the corpus callosum serves a predominantly excitatory function. There is evidence, however, to support both theories and the possibility remains that the corpus callosum can serve both an inhibitory and excitatory influence on the contralateral hemisphere.     

The Role of the Hippocampus in Trace Conditioning: Temporal Discontinuity or Task Difficulty?

It is well established that the hippocampal formation is critically involved in the acquisition of trace memories, a paradigm in which the conditioned (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (US) are separated by a temporal gap (Solomon et al., 1986). The structure is reportedly not critical for the acquisition of delay memories, where the CS and the US overlap in time (Berger & Orr, 1983; Schmaltz & Theios, 1972). Based on these results, it is often stated that the hippocampus is involved in "filling the gap" or otherwise associating the two stimuli in time. However, in addition to the presence of a temporal gap, there are other differences between trace and delay conditioning. The most apparent difference is that animals require many more trials to learn the trace task, and thus it is inherently more difficult than the delay task. Here, we tested whether the hippocampus was critically involved in delay conditioning, if it was rendered more difficult such that the rate of acquisition was shifted to be analogous to trace conditioning. Groups of rats received excitotoxic lesions to the hippocampus, sham lesions or were left intact. Using the same interstimulus intervals (ISI), control animals required more trials to acquire the trace than the delay task. As predicted, animals with hippocampal lesions were impaired during trace conditioning but not delay conditioning. However, when the delay task was rendered more difficult by extending the ISI (a long delay task), animals with hippocampal lesions were impaired. In addition, once the lesioned animal learned the association between the CS and the US during delay conditioning, it could learn and perform the trace CR. Thus, the role of the hippocampus in classical conditioning is not limited to learning about discontiguous events in time and space; rather the structure can become engaged simply as a function of task difficulty.     

The Role of the Family Therapist in Divorce: Benevolent Healer or Agent of Social Change?

Essay Review of:
The Dynamics of Divorce: A Life Cycle Perspective , F. W. Kaslow and L. L. Schwartz, New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1987.
Divorced Families: A Multidisciplinary Developmental View , C. R. Ahrons and R. H. Rodgers, New York: W. W. Norton, 1987.
The Difficult Divorce: Therapy for Children and Families , M. B. Isaacs, B. Montalvo, and D. Abelson, New York: Basic Books, 1986.     

The Relationship Between Mindfulness and Happiness in Student-Athletes: The Role of Self-Compassion—Mediator or Moderator?

Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - In the present study, the mediating and moderating role of self-compassion in the relationship between mindfulness and happiness was...     

The “Endura” of The Cathars’ Heresy: Medieval Concept of Ritual Euthanasia or Suicide?

The aim of the study is to explore the medieval concepts on the voluntary death of severely sick people, as they emerge through the endura (endurance) of the heresy of the Cathars in France (twelfth to fourteenth centuries). The endura was the prerequisite act of repentance that would allow the fallen soul to return to heaven. The endura was a necessary act of repentance, after the performance of a ceremonial purification of the soul (consolamentum), and consisted of the patients’ voluntary abstention from vital food. The consolamentum and endura could be performed in the final stage of a disease with the consent of the patients or their relatives. The role of the Cathar physician was only to determine the severity of the disease and the forthcoming death of the patient. The physician was not allowed to take steps that would deprive the life of the patient, and the performance of the ritual endura was duty of the spiritual leaders of the community. The modern ethical approach to this subject is dictated by the medieval belief on the salvation of the soul and tries to answer the question of whether the endura could be seen as a medieval concept of a ritual euthanasia or fell within the theological sin of suicide.     

Nice or Naughty? The Role of Emotions and Digital Media Use in Explaining Adolescents’ Online Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior

The opportunities and mostly the risks of digital communication technologies for adolescents have been documented extensively in the last two decades, but less is known about how adolescents interact with each other online, especially regarding positive interactions. Moreover, since online prosocial and antisocial behavior have rarely been assessed simultaneously, it is hard to obtain a balanced view of adolescents’ online behavior. Therefore, in this study, we examined both dimensions of online social behavior and how these are related to adolescents’ experienced emotions and their uses of digital media. Findings indicated that participants performed and received more prosocial than antisocial behavior online. Experiencing negative as well as positive emotions was related to online social behavior, and these associations were mediated by adolescents’ use of social and audiovisual media, but not by gaming or functional Internet use. The social sharing of emotions and mood management theory are used to discuss the results.     

To Cheat or Not to Cheat?: The Role of Personality in Academic and Business Ethics

Past research (Lawson, 2004 Lawson, R. A. 2004. Is classroom cheating related to business students’ propensity to cheat in the "real world"?. Journal of Business Ethics, 49: 189–199. doi:10.1023/B: BUSI.0000015784.34148.cb[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Nonis &; Swift, 2001 Nonis, S. and Swift, C. O. 2001. An examination of the relationship between academic dishonesty and workplace dishonesty: A multicampus investigation. Journal of Education for Business, 77: 69–77. doi:10.1080/08832320109599052[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) has revealed a correlation between academic and business ethics. Using a sample survey, this study extends this inquiry by examining the role of dispositional variables (neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness) and academic honesty on business ethics perceptions. Results indicate that (1) neuroticism and conscientiousness were positively related to more ethical perceptions in a work context, and (2) academic honesty partially mediated the relationship between conscientiousness and business ethics. Implications to business practitioners and educators are discussed as well as directions for future research.     

Buffers or Boosters? The Role of HRM Practices in Older Workers' Experience of Stereotype Threat

Building on the social identity approach and the HRM literature, this two-wave cross-sectional study examined the effects of negative age-based metastereotypes on the age-based stereotype threat experience of older workers and on organizational disidentification. The moderator role of HRM practices in the relationship between negative age-based metastereotypes and age-based stereotype threat was also investigated. Older workers survey results (n = 469) from 14 manufacturing companies indicated that negative age-based metastereotypes correlate positively with stereotype threat. Moderation results showed that age-awareness HRM practices (training for older workers) reinforced age-based stereotype threat, whereas general HRM practices (recognition and respect) impaired it. The article suggests that the combination of age-based metastereotypes with a stereotype threat framework contributes to further understand older workers' beliefs and attitudes. It also indicates that to be effective, HRM practices should emphasize positive social identities older workers share with their colleagues, rather than giving older workers special treatment that may, after all, reinforce stigmatization.     

The Role of Teacher Cognition and Behavior in Children’s Peer Relations

This study explored the role of the classroom teacher in peers’ evaluations of liking and disliking of their classmates. Teacher cognitions about children (teacher liking of students, teacher attributions for aggressive student behavior) and teacher behavior toward children (positive, corrective/negative) were examined as mediators in the link between children’s own behavior (aggression, prosocial behavior) and peer liking and disliking. Participants were 127 second-graders in 12 classrooms (64 males, 63 females). Data on child behavior were collected through peer and teacher report, data on teacher cognitions about children were collected through self report, data on teacher behavior toward children were collected through naturalistic classroom observations, and data on peer liking and disliking were collected through peer nominations. Data were analyzed using path analysis. Results indicated that teacher cognitions about children and corrective/negative teacher behavior toward children mediated the relations between aggressive and prosocial child behavior and peer disliking.     

The Role of Gender Identification in Social Dominance Orientation: Mediating or Moderating the Effect of Sex?1

Previous research has shown that people's gender identification correlates with their social dominance orientation (SDO). A question is whether gender identification mediates or moderates the effect of biological sex on SDO. We examined the correlations of sex and gender identification with SDO using the Bem Sex Role Inventory in Study 1 and a gender diagnostic measure in Study 2. Both studies showed that gender identification was significantly associated with SDO. In Study 1, gender identification partially mediated the effect of sex on SDO; and in Study 2, this mediation was complete. There were no indications that gender identification moderated the effect of sex on SDO. The results are discussed against the background of the gender invariance hypothesis of SDO.     

The Pursuit of Perfection: Vice or Virtue in Judaism?

This article explores the issue of perfectionism, which the author asserts is the underlying dynamic in the emotional disorders of many religious patients. Judaism's attitude toward perfectionism, the use of religion as a defense by perfectionistic patients and the degree to which religious issues should be the focus of therapy are discussed. The role of a peer supervision group in counteracting the perfectionistic tendencies of some therapists is also addressed. These issues are illustrated with three clinical vignettes.     

Trajectories of Youthful Antisocial Behavior: Categories or Continua?

The purpose of this study was to determine whether qualitatively distinct trajectories of antisocial behavior could be identified in 1,708 children (843 boys, 865 girls) from the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth–Child Data (NLSY-C). Repeated ratings were made on the Behavior Problems Index (BPI: Peterson and Zill Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 295–307, 1986) antisocial scale by the mothers of these children when the children were 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 years of age. Scores on three indicators constructed from the six BPI Antisocial items (callousness, aggression, noncompliance) were then analyzed longitudinally (by summing across the rating periods) and cross-sectionally (by testing each individual rating period) in the full sample as well as in subsamples of boys and girls. Results obtained with the mean above minus below a cut (MAMBAC), maximum covariance (MAXCOV), and latent mode factor analysis (L-Mode) taxometric procedures revealed consistent evidence of continuous latent structure despite the fact Growth Mixture Modeling (GMM) and Latent Class Growth Analysis (LCGA) identified between two and eight trajectories, depending on the stopping rule, in the three antisocial indicators. From these results, it is concluded that the structural model underlying these data is better represented as continuous rather than as categorical. The implications of these results for future research on developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior are discussed.     

The Role of Co-Workers’ Solidarity as an Antecedent of Incivility and Deviant Behavior in Organizations

Drawing on the social exchange theory this study assesses the relationship between co-workers’ solidarity as an antecedent of incivility and deviant behavior. More specifically we hypothesize that reduced co-workers’ solidarity will increase not only incivility but also deviant behaviors of employees. An additional hypothesis predicts that incivility will enhance co-workers’ deviant behavior. Data was collected in 15 organizations of various types using an online questionnaire in 2014. We analyze the data using structural equation modeling. Our findings reveal interrelationships between all three variables. Co-workers’ solidarity reduces uncivil and deviant behaviors of employees, whereas incivility increases organizational deviance. Moreover, we found that the explained variance of property deviance by incivility was twice as high compared to production deviance.     

Discriminators of Moral Orientation: Gender Role or Personality?

Gender role (i.e., masculinity and femininity), personality traits, age, and level of education were used as discriminators of moral orientation in an examination of their role in the process of moral decision making. Responses of adult participants indicated the justice orientation to be most strongly associated with personality characteristics of judging and intuition; the care orientation was most strongly associated with perceiving and sensing. Masculinity and femininity, however, contributed very little to the analysis. Results indicate moral orientation may be less differentiated by gender role patterns and more by characteristics of the personality, involving perception of information and type of judgment.