Narrative skill and testimonial accuracy in typically developing children and those with intellectual disabilities

Children must describe maltreatment coherently for their testimony to be influential in court. We know little about how well children with intellectual disabilities (CWID) describe their experiences relative to typically developing (TD) children, despite CWID's vulnerability to maltreatment. We investigated children's reports of an experienced event and compared coherence in CWID (mild to moderate impairment: 7–11 years) with TD children matched for mental (4–10 years) or chronological age (7–11 years). All children included important markers of narrative coherence in their reports. Children with lower mental ages, particularly those with an intellectual disability, included fewer markers of narrative coherence in their reports than children with higher mental ages. Individual markers of narrative coherence, particularly recall of content, predicted accuracy of testimony and resistance to suggestion even when disability and mental age were taken into account. These findings highlight the importance of helping children to describe their experiences coherently.     

Sociocultural studies of families of children with intellectual disabilities

This article reviews recent sociocultural studies of families of children with intellectual disabilities to introduce the range of research conducted from this perspective and to highlight the methodological, conceptual, and theoretical contributions of this approach to the study of mental retardation. Sociocultural studies examine families within their cultural, historical, and sociopolitical contexts. This type of research is comparative across different cultural groups, but is not limited to such comparisons. Sociocultural studies use varied theories and methods, but they share a focus on families' coproduction of meanings and practices related to intellectual disability; families' responses and adaptations to disability; and how their understandings and experiences are shaped within larger social institutions and inequities. Sociocultural approaches take into account community contexts that matter to families with members with mental retardation or developmental delay, and they examine the broader systems that define and position individuals with disabilities and their families. As a whole, these studies provide a more experiential and holistic view of families' beliefs and adaptations within sociopolitical worlds, and offer new tools by which to study the families of children with developmental delays within and across different cultural groups.     

Learner-centered versus automatic adaptive motor skill training

Three types of training (fixed-difficulty, automatic-adaptive, and learner-centered) were used to teach 18 male and 18 female students a two-dimensional pursuit-tracking task. A 7-min tracking session, in which task difficulty shifted each minute, was used to measure transfer. Although training type did not result in differences in training time, students trained under learner-centered procedures had less tracking error during transfer. Females required on the average twice as much training as mates. During transfer no sex differences were noted. The differences in training time for males and females may reflect previous experience with similar motor-control tasks.     

Expressed emotion in families of children and adults with intellectual disabilities

Expressed emotion (EE) is a measure of the affective relationship between two people characterized by criticism, hostility, and emotionally over-involved attitudes. Outside of the field of intellectual disabilities, there has been considerable interest in EE as an environmental marker that explains variance in the severity and/or course of a number of psychiatric disorders. Researchers have also studied EE in parents and found strong associations with children's behavior problems. In this review, we focus on the data from 11 published studies of EE in families of children and adults with intellectual disabilities. We conclude that there is evidence for the presence of high EE in some families, and that this alone should concern researchers and clinicians and set an agenda for considerable future research effort. We also note a lack of attention to the measurement of EE in intellectual disability. In terms of the existing evidence base, we suggest that there is support for the hypothesis that behavior problems in children and adults with intellectual disabilities may be related to high EE in parents, and a small amount of data predicting over time support the putative causal effect of high EE on maintaining or exacerbating behavior problems. Given that EE is perhaps best conceptualized as the result of an interaction between caregivers and those cared for, there is a need to explore interventions that may help to remediate high EE within families. It is also important to understand from this position that EE may be a normative part of the experience of caring for someone under very stressful circumstances and not something for which families are blamed. Other future research priorities and some implications for practice are also discussed.     

Physical educators' beliefs about teaching children with disabilities

The primary purpose was to extend Rizzo's research and identify the variables which contribute significantly to physical educators' positive beliefs about teaching children with disabilities. The second purpose was to structure physical educators' beliefs by conditions of disability. Participants were a stratified random sample of 168 physical educators, 79 men and 89 women from eastern USA. Responses to Rizzo's Physical Educators' Attitudes Toward Teaching Individuals with Disabilities-III indicated that teachers' beliefs were generally positive but varied by type of disability. Beliefs were more positive about teaching children with specific learning disabilities and less positive about teaching children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Significant predictors of positive beliefs were perceived competence, positive teaching experience with children with disabilities, and course work in adapted physical education. The study has important implications for programs of preparing students to teach.     

Poverty and people with intellectual disabilities

Epidemiological studies have consistently reported a significant association between poverty and the prevalence of intellectual disabilities. The available evidence suggests that this association reflects two distinct processes. First, poverty causes intellectual disabilities, an effect mediated through the association between poverty and exposure to a range of environmental and psychosocial hazards. Second, families supporting a child with intellectual disabilities and adults with intellectual disabilities are at increased risk of experiencing poverty due to the financial and social impact of caring and the exclusion of people with intellectual disabilities from the workforce. It is likely that the association between poverty and intellectual disabilities accounts in part for the health and social inequalities experienced by people with intellectual disabilities and their families. Implications for policy and practice are discussed in relation to the funding of services for people with intellectual disabilities and preventative approaches to addressing the health and social inequalities experienced by people with intellectual disabilities and their families.     

Contextual influences on resistance to disruption in children with intellectual disabilities

Training context can influence resistance to disruption under differing reinforcement schedules. With nonhumans, when relatively lean and rich reinforcement schedules are experienced in the context of a multiple schedule, greater resistance is found in the rich than the lean component, as described by behavioral momentum theory. By contrast, when the schedules are experienced in separated blocks of sessions (i.e., as single schedules), resistance is not consistently greater in either component. In the current study, two groups of 6 children with intellectual disabilities responded to stimuli presented in relatively lean or rich components. For both, reinforcers were delivered according to the same variable-interval reinforcement schedule; additionally, the rich component included the delivery of response-independent reinforcers. The Within group was trained on a multiple schedule in which lean and rich components alternated regularly within sessions; the Blocked group was trained on two single schedules in which sessions with either the lean or rich schedule were conducted in successive blocks. Disruption tests presented a concurrently available alternative stimulus disrupter signaling the availability of tangible reinforcers. All 6 Within participants showed greater resistance to disruption in the rich component, consistent with behavioral momentum theory. By contrast, there was no consistent or significant difference in resistance for Blocked participants. This finding is potentially relevant to the development of interventions in applied settings, where such interventions often approximate single schedules and include response-independent reinforcers.     

A comparative analysis of the effects of social skill training and teacher-directed contingencies on social behavior of preschool children with disabilities

This study investigated the effects of an analog social skill training program and a teacher-directed contingency strategy on promoting social responding among four preschool children with mild disabilities and their peers. The social skill training program consisted of five lessons targeting the skill areas: Initiating, responding, and maintaining social interactions. The teacher directed contingency consisted of prompting target children when they were not socially involved with peers, and providing verbal praise when they were socially involved with peers. Subjects were divided into two training pairs and received both interventions in a reversal design. Presentation order was counterbalanced across the two training pairs. Results indicated that the teacher directed contingency was more effective in promoting higher levels of social responding in a free-play setting. Results also suggest that social skill training may not always be a necessary prerequisite to promote increased social interactions among children who display low rates of social interaction with peers, but possess necessary skills.     

Community-referenced leisure skill clusters for adolescents with multiple disabilities

We evaluated the effectiveness of a training package used to teach student-selected community-referenced leisure skill clusters — ordering a pizza-to-go and renting a video from a local vendor — to two adolescents with multiple disabilities. The adolescents were taught the leisure skills (e.g., ordering the pizza) as well as related behaviors necessary to perform those leisure skills (e.g., using a phone, interacting with the delivery person, cutting and serving pizza, cleaning up). The students were taught functional skill clusters, problem-solving skills, and assistance-seeking skills. Training consisted of didactic instruction, feedback, a least intrusive prompting procedure for incorrect responses, and verbal praise and natural consequences for correct responses. Simulation training was conducted at school and in vivotraining was conducted in the local community. A multiple baseline design demonstrated the controlling effects of treatment. Also, follow-up probes conducted up to five months after treatment showed these students maintained treatment gains. Applied issues related to the efficiency of the training package, general and specific skills training, and factors influencing skill maintenance are discussed.     

Social skill assessment and training for children: an evaluative review

Techniques employed in the behavioral assessment and treatment of socially deficient children are reviewed. General definitions and components of assertion and social skill in children are presented. While considerable data attest to the potential efficiency of behavioral approaches with this population, several methodological problems prevent any definitive conclusions from being drawn at this time. Some of these include: (1) lack of an accurate classification system of socially isolated children, (2) need for an empirical determination of skill components, and (3) the paucity of data concerning generalization and maintenance of treatment effects. The utility of incorporating developmental and social psychological methods into behavioral programs also is discussed. Suggestions for future directions of research are offered.     

Individual and developmental differences in eyewitness recall and suggestibility in children with intellectual disabilities

This study examined two key issues: (1) whether there were developmental improvements in eyewitness memory performance for children with intellectual disabilities (ID); and (2) whether standardised measures of cognitive ability and suggestibility would relate to eyewitness recall and suggestibility. Children with ID and age‐matched controls (ages 8/9 and 12 years) watched a video of a crime and were asked a range of open‐ended and specific questions about the event in a subsequent interview. Free recall increased between the two age levels for children with and without ID, but at a faster rate for those without ID. For other question types, differences in performance between children with and without ID were far more marked than age differences. Standardised measures of interrogative suggestibility (Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale, GSS), verbal IQ, non‐verbal IQ, mental age and speed of information processing were related to eyewitness performance. In particular, higher eyewitness recall scores (free recall, non‐leading specific questions) were related to higher scores on the standardised GSS free recall measure; and higher eyewitness suggestibility scores were related to higher scores on the standardised GSS suggestibility measures. Mental age was a better predictor of performance on a range of eyewitness memory question types than verbal or non‐verbal IQ; and speed of information processing showed some relationships with eyewitness performance. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cross-lateralisation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and motor skill performance

Cross-lateralisation and increased motor difficulties have been reported in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Nevertheless, the question of how crossed (i.e. mixed preference) or uncrossed (i.e. same side preference) lateralisation impacts motor performance in children with ADHD has yet to be examined. In this study, previously validated observational measures of hand and foot preference were used to identify right-handed children with ADHD who display cross- (n = 29) and uncross-lateralisation (n = 31). An uncross-lateralised typically developing (TD) group (n = 32) was also identified, and included as a control. Motor performance was assessed with seven valid and reliable fine and gross motor tasks performed with both preferred and non-preferred limbs. Group, task and sex-related effects were examined. Findings revealed that male (but not female) cross-lateralised children with ADHD performed significantly worse, respectively, in two of the fine motor tasks (spiral tracing [p < .01], and dot filling [p < .05]). Results suggest that cross-lateralised hand and foot preference may affect complex motor skills in male children with ADHD. Furthermore, characteristics of ADHD may manifest differently in male and female children. Findings highlight the importance of considering both hand and foot preference when targeting motor interventions for children with ADHD.     

The effect of physical fitness training on reaction time in youth with intellectual disabilities

The purpose of this study was to assess whether reaction time in persons with intellectual disabilities can be improved with an exercise program. 50 children and adolescents (M age = 14.7 yr., SD = 1.4, range = 11-18) with mild intellectual disability without Downs syndrome were randomly divided into control (20 boys, 5 girls) and experimental (19 boys, 6 girls) groups. The experimental group participated in a structured physical fitness program for 12 weeks. Reaction time was assessed at baseline and after 12 weeks. Significant improvements in reaction time were observed in the exercise group but not for the control group. Results indicated that reaction time can be improved with an exercise program in youth with intellectual disability.     

The role of maternal responsivity in the development of children with intellectual disabilities

There is growing evidence that cumulative exposure to highly responsive parenting styles throughout the early childhood period may provide a variety of important child benefits in terms of language, cognitive, social, and emotional development. We view maternal responsivity as a dynamic construct of central importance to the development of children with intellectual disabilities just as it is for typically developing children. In this study, we selectively review the theoretical and conceptual evidence for the effects of responsivity on development, discuss factors known to influence responsivity including the nature of a child's disability, and review intervention approaches intended to enhance maternal responsivity. We conclude with a set of recommendations for future research.     

Response to bullying (RTB): Behavioral skills and in situ training for individuals diagnosed with intellectual disabilities

This study evaluated behavioral skills training (BST) and in situ training (IST) to teach a response to bullying (RtB) to four adults with intellectual disabilities who were victims of bullying. The RtB consisted of refraining from retaliating, stating disapproval, walking away, and telling a staff member. In situ assessments were conducted in the natural setting to assess the effects of BST and IST. BST alone was successful in teaching the RtB to two participants. When BST did not result in the use of the RtB, IST was effective for one participant, and IST plus an incentive was effective for the other participant. The results of this study are consistent with previous BST and IST research.     

The state of research and practice in augmentative and alternative communication for children with developmental/intellectual disabilities

Augmentative and alternative communication is a compilation of methods and technology designed to supplement spoken communication for people with limited speech or language skills, including children with developmental and intellectual disabilities. The field of AAC has evolved rapidly within the last 10 years, due to a combination of empirical advances from research as well as rapid changes in technology. This article reviews some of the most significant aspects of this growth as it relates to children with developmental disabilities. Major issues within the field, the evidence base available to practitioners and researchers, and promising areas of future growth are identified.     

Short and long-term motor skill learning in an accelerated rotarod training paradigm

Rodent models of motor skill learning include skilled forelimb reaching and acrobatic locomotor paradigms. This study characterizes motor skill learning in the accelerated rotarod task. Thirty Long-Evans rats (300-400 g) were trained on an accelerated rotarod (1cm/s(2)) over eight consecutive sessions (=days, 20 trials each). Improvement in rotarod velocities mastered before falling off the rod was observed within and between sessions (plateau after five sessions). Intrasession improvement was incompletely retained at the beginning of the next day's session. Over several training sessions, intrasession improvement diminished, suggesting a ceiling effect. After 1 week of pause, the rotarod skill was retained. Locomotor exercise in a running wheel for 30 min before the first rotarod session did not affect intrasession improvement. Running-wheel exposure for 6 days did not diminish the rate of rotarod skill learning (steepness of the learning curve) but improved overall performance (upward shift of curve). Video analysis of gait on the rotarod showed that rats developed a motor strategy by modifying their gait patterns during training. The data demonstrate that rotarod improvement is not the result of enhanced general locomotor ability or fitness, which are trained in the running wheel, but requires a change in the motor strategy to master the task. Accelerated rotarod training can be regarded a valid paradigm for motor skill learning over short (intrasession, minutes) and long time frames (intersession, days).