Relationships between physiological and psychological stress and salivary immunoglobulin A among young female gymnasts

We investigated whether psychological and physical stress induced by training or competition influence the secretory immune system among 12 highly trained young female gymnasts. Salivary levels of secretory IgA and cortisol responses to gymnastic training session or competition were assessed a total of 10 times, immediately before and after two training sessions which had different intensities and just before and after a major competition. These parameters were also measured on two non-training days. The Brunel Mood Scale was also used to assess the gymnasts's overall mood on each test day. IgA:Protein ratio was calculated. Significant decreases in this ratio were found after each exercise session, related to the physiological and psychological stress induced by exercise. Over the 5-mo. training period the presession IgA:Protein ratios were unchanged. Gymnasts registered any episodes of upper respiratory tract infection. Bouts of exercise induce transitory effects on the immune system in relation to the workload and the stress induced by the exercise without any relation to increased susceptibility to illness in children.     

Competitive anxiety in young athletes: differentiating somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption

The age-appropriate Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2; Smith, Smoll, Cumming, & Grossbard, 2006) was used to assess levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety among male and female youth sport participants. Confirmatory factor analyses with a sample of 9-14 year old athletes (N=1038) supported the viability of a three-factor model of anxiety involving somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption previously demonstrated in high school and college samples. Tests for factorial invariance revealed that the three-factor model was an equally good fit for 9-11 year olds and 12-14 year olds, and for both males and females. Gender and age were modestly related to anxiety scores. Worry about performing poorly was highest in girls and in older athletes, whereas boys reported higher levels of concentration disruption in competitive sport situations. Implications for emotional perception and for the study of competitive anxiety in young athletes are discussed.     

Competitive state anxiety and self-confidence: Intensity and direction as relative predictors of performance on a golf putting task

Abstract

This study considered relationships between the intensity and directional aspects of competitive state anxiety as measured by the modified Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-2(D) (Jones & Swain, 1992 Jones, G. and Swain, A. B. J. 1992. Intensity and direction as dimensions of competitive state anxiety and relationships with competitiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74: 467–472. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in a sample of 12 experienced male golfers. Anxiety and performance scores from identical putting tasks performed under three different anxiety-manipulated competitive conditions were used to assess both the predictions of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT; Martens et al., 1990 Martens, R., Burton, D., Vealey, R., Bump, L. and Smith, D. 1990. “The development of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2)”. In Competitive anxiety in sport, Edited by: Martens, R., Vealey, R. S. and Burton, D. 117–190. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.  [Google Scholar]) and the relative value of intensity and direction in explaining performance variance. A within-subjects regression analysis of the intra-individual data showed partial support for the three MAT hypotheses. Cognitive anxiety intensity demonstrated a negative linear relationship with performance, somatic anxiety intensity showed a curvilinear relationship with performance, and self-confidence intensity revealed a positive linear relation. Cognitive directional anxiety illustrated a positive linear relationship with putting performance. Multiple regression analyses indicated that direction (42% of variance) was a better predictor of performance than intensity (22%)     

Competitive state anxiety and self-confidence: intensity and direction as relative predictors of performance on a golf putting task

This study considered relationships between the intensity and directional aspects of competitive state anxiety as measured by the modified Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-2(D) (Jones & Swain, 1992) in a sample of 12 experienced male golfers. Anxiety and performance scores from identical putting tasks performed under three different anxiety-manipulated competitive conditions were used to assess both the predictions of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT; Martens et al., 1990) and the relative value of intensity and direction in explaining performance variance. A within-subjects regression analysis of the intra-individual data showed partial support for the three MAT hypotheses. Cognitive anxiety intensity demonstrated a negative linear relationship with performance, somatic anxiety intensity showed a curvilinear relationship with performance, and self-confidence intensity revealed a positive linear relation. Cognitive directional anxiety illustrated a positive linear relationship with putting performance. Multiple regression analyses indicated that direction (42% of variance) was a better predictor of performance than intensity (22%).     

Relations between female students' personality traits and reported handicaps to rhythmic gymnastics performance

The present study evaluated the relative contributions of Self-esteem, Trait anxiety, and Public Self-consciousness to self-handicapping on a sex-typed task, within a specific academic sport context. Prior to the competitive examination used to recruit French Physical Education Teachers, female sport students (N = 74) were asked to list and rate on a 7-point scale handicaps which could be disruptive to their Rhythmic Gymnastics performance. Self-esteem did not account for significant variance in any category of handicaps. Trait Anxiety was negatively related to handicaps related to Rhythmic Gymnastics and to Social and Work Commitments. Public Self-consciousness was significantly related to endorsement of Friends and Family Commitments handicaps. These results were discussed in relation to the literature.     

Participation motives of young Australian and Chinese gymnasts.

Reasons for participating in gymnastics were investigated with 280 Australian and 103 Chinese youth. The participants, aged 8 to 15 years, completed modified versions of the Participation Motivation Questionnaire. Treatment of the scores by principal components analysis yielded seven factors. Further analyses showed that the samples differed significantly on six of these factors. Comparisons of individual items indicated that the Australian gymnasts rated having fun and liking the rewards as more important than did the Chinese respondents. Chinese athletes allocated higher ratings to being part of a club, having a good body, liking to win, and wanting to be popular. Both groups assigned high values to reasons associated with improving skills, being fit, and getting exercise. It was suggested that the findings reflected cultural differences between Australian and Chinese societies as well as particular characteristics of the Chinese sample.     

Competitive worries, sport confidence, and performance ratings for young swimmers

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among competitive worries, sport confidence, and performance of young athletes. Participants were 143 young swimmers aged 11 to 12 years. The athletes completed trait and state questionnaires (competitive worries and sport confidence) in noncompetitive and competitive conditions, respectively. The results indicated: (a) significant relationships among trait and state characteristics and between trait General Self-confidence and performance ratings in both races as well as between performance ratings in Races 1 and 2; (b) significant differences in state variables among athletes with moderate or high and low scores on the trait variables; (c) significant differences in performance among athletes with moderate or high and low scores on the trait General Self-confidence and trait Positive Thinking in Race 1 and on variables trait General Self-confidence, state General Self confidence, and state Positive Thinking Race 2; and (d) trait General Self-confidence and trait Confidence in Unfavorable Situations were the most important predictors of young swimmers' performances. These results may be useful in application to competitive sports for young athletes. They may help in psychodiagnostic procedures and may be used for both the content and the direction of individual programs for psychological preparation of young athletes.     

Passionate love and anxiety in young adolescents

Two studies tested the hypothesis that young adolescents who experience a great deal of anxiety will be more likely to experience passionate love as well. In the first study, 24 boys and 17 girls, ranging in age from 12 to 14, were given the Child Anxiety Scale (which measures trait anxiety) and the Juvenile Love Scale (JLS). In the second study, 32 adolescent girls and 32 adolescent boys, ranging in age from 13 to 16, were given the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (which measures both trait and state anxiety) and the JLS. The studies found significant correlations between anxiety (both state and trait) and JLS scores in these young adolescents.As you might guess, it is extremely difficult to secure permission to interview children and adolescents about their feelings of passionate love. Thus, we would like to thank Dr. Mark Silzer, Principal of Our Redeemer Lutheran Elementary School, for his help on this project.     

Sex differences in Group Embedded Figures Test performance in relation to sex-role,state and trait anxiety

The Group Embedded Figures Test of field dependence (GEFT) was administered to first-year psychology students who were then assigned to four sex-role classes depending on whether or not they exceeded median masculinity and femininity scores on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Males achieved significantly higher GEFT scores but there were no significant sex-role effects. In a second study, other students were assigned to field dependent (DEP) and independent (INDEP) groups according to whether or not they exceeded the median GEFT performance for each sex. Between-group comparisons were then made of scores on the state and trait scales of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In neither case was there a significant difference between the DEP and INDEP groups. However, for males only, there was a significant negative correlation between state and GEFT scores as well as a significant positive correlation between the two anxiety scales. Although the latter results suggested a sex difference in how the GEFT demands are perceived, it was concluded that neither sex-role nor state or trait anxiety could adequately account for consistently better male GEFT performance.     

Competitive fixed-interval performance in humans

Two persons responded in the same session in separate cubicles, but under a single schedule of reinforcement. Each time reinforcement was programmed, only the first response to occur, that is, the response of only one of the subjects, was reinforced. “Competitive” behavior that developed under these conditions was examined in three experiments. In Experiment 1 subjects responded under fixed-interval (FI) 30-s, 60-s, and 90-s schedules of reinforcement. Under the competition condition, relative to baseline conditions, the response rates were higher and the pattern was “break-and-run.” In Experiment 2, subjects were exposed first to a conventional FI schedule and then to an FI competition schedule. Next, they were trained to respond under either a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) or fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, and finally, the initial FI competition condition was reinstated. In this second exposure to the FI competition procedure, DRL subjects responded at lower rates than were emitted during the initial exposure to that condition and FR subjects responded at higher rates. For all subjects, however, responding gradually returned to the break-and-run pattern that had occurred during the first FI competition condition. Experiment 3 assessed potential variables contributing to the effects of the competitive FI contingencies during Experiments 1 and 2. Subjects were exposed to FI schedules where (a) probability of reinforcement at completion of each fixed interval was varied, or (b) a limited hold was in effect for reinforcement. Only under the limited hold was responding similar to that observed in previous experiments.     

State-trait anxiety and motocross performance

The prediction from state-trait theory that subjects low in anxiety will perform better than highly anxious subjects on a more difficult task was tested on a motocross competition. We analyzed the relationships among the entire rank order of finish and state and trait anxiety measured by State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for 32 motocross riders (males whose age ranged from 16 to 27 yr.) participating in a national competition in Italy. A negative correlation between performance (measured by rank at the finish of the competition) and state anxiety was noted. The r for state and trait anxiety scores was also negative, but that between performance and trait anxiety was nonsignificant. Additional studies of high level sport competition will provide data relevant to planning interventions to control athletes' anxiety.     

Stopping,goal-conflict,trait anxiety and frontal rhythmic power in the stop-signal task

The medial right frontal cortex is implicated in fast stopping of an initiated motor action in the stop-signal task (SST). To assess whether this region is also involved in the slower behavioural inhibition induced by goal conflict, we tested for effects of goal conflict (when stop and go tendencies are balanced) on low-frequency rhythms in the SST. Stop trials were divided, according to the delays at which the stop signal occurred, into short-, intermediate-, and long-delay trials. Consistent with goal-conflict processing, intermediate-delay trials were associated with greater 7–8 Hz EEG power than short- or long-delay trials at medial right frontal sites (Fz, F4, and F8). At F8, 7–8 Hz power was linked to high trait anxiety and neuroticism. A separate 4–7 Hz power increase was also seen in stop, relative to go, trials, but this was independent of delay, was maximal at the central midline site Cz, and predicted faster stopping. Together with previous data on the SST, these results suggest that the right frontal region could be involved in multiple inhibition mechanisms. We propose a hierarchical model of the control of stopping that integrates the literature on the neural control of fast motor stopping with that on slower, motive-directed behavioural inhibition.     

Memory anxiety and memory performance in adulthood

The present study examined the contribution of general and domain-specific anxiety to the prediction of memory performance in a sample of 350 young, middle-aged and old adults. In a preliminary stage of this investigation, psychometric analyses revealed that the predictive validity of the Anxiety scale of the Metamemory in Adulthood questionnaire, used to assess memory-related anxiety, could be improved by using an abbreviated version of the scale. This Memory Anxiety subscale predicted level of state anxiety experienced by middle-aged and older subjects in anticipation of a memory-demanding task. It was superior to the general state measures in predicting actual memory performance, but only for the oldest age group. Results thus provide support for domain- and age-specificity in the assessment of anxiety performance relationships.