The Creativity Crisis: The Decrease in Creative Thinking Scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking

The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) was developed in 1966 and renormed five times: in 1974, 1984, 1990, 1998, and 2008. The total sample for all six normative samples included 272,599 kindergarten through 12th grade students and adults. Analysis of the normative data showed that creative thinking scores remained static or decreased, starting at sixth grade. Results also indicated that since 1990, even as IQ scores have risen, creative thinking scores have significantly decreased. The decrease for kindergartners through third graders was the most significant.     

The Factor Structure of the Figural Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking: A Meta-Confirmatory Factor Analysis

To investigate the factor structure of the Figural Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (Figural TTCT), a meta-confirmatory factor analysis was performed. A sample of 33 correlation matrices from 26 studies (N_individuals = 6,982) was included in the meta-analysis. Four different factor models previously presented in the literature were tested to determine which model fits the data best. The results supported a 2-factor structure model in which fluency and originality subscales loaded on the innovative factor; elaboration, abstractness of titles, and resistance to premature closure subscales loaded on the adaptive factor. Implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Assessment of Creative Thinking Across Cultures Using the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT): Translation and Validity Issues

As part of a project to translate and administer the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) to Turkish elementary and secondary students, 35 professionals were trained in a full-day workshop to learn to score the verbal TTCT. All trainees scored the same 4 sets of TTCT verbal criterion tests for fluency, flexibility, and originality by filling out specially designed forms to allow item analysis of each of the criterion responses. This analysis outlines a protocol to monitor the responses of scorers at the item level, not a level of analysis that is normally performed on the TTCT. The results of item level analyses for fluency and flexibility data from the 35 trainees reveal new information about translation, training, and scoring. Based on these results, this article makes the case for item-level analysis for cross-cultural applications to prevent artificially congruent scores that will not predict accuracy in future scoring.     

Creative thinking and juvenile delinquency: a study of delinquent and nondelinquent youth on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.

Using the T.T.C.T. this study examined the creative thinking of 32 delinquent and 32 nondelinquent adolescent males. The delinquent group was composed of juveniles on parole status. The nondelinquent group was composed of public school students. On the variables of IQ, age, and socioeconomic class, t-test results indicated no significant differences, except on socioeconomic class, between the groups. Analysis of variance procedures were performed to determine the possibility of an interaction between levels of intelligence and delinquent status with regard to verbal and figural creativity test scores. There were no significant main effects or interaction between IQ and adjudication status with respect to figural creativity. There was a significant main effect due to adjudication status for the dependent variable of verbal creativity scores, respectively while blocking on the intelligence variable. The results were parallel to the ANOVAS which did not specifically control for the intelligence variable between the two groups.     

Use of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in an Exploratory Study of Creativity in Hong Kong Primary School Children: A Cross-cultural Comparison

This exploratory study reports an empirical attempt to (1) establish inter-scorer and parallel-forms reliabilities as well as convergent validity of the Chinese version of the TTCT, (2) measure the level of fluency, flexibility, and originality in 10–12 year-old Hong Kong children, and (3) compare the scores of the Hong Kong sample with those from other studies. The Figural and Verbal Forms A and B were administered. The overall results showed high inter-rater reliability of the Chinese version of the Test. The parallel-forms reliability between the Verbal Forms (P > 0.001) of the Test was higher than that between the Figural Forms (P > 0.05). The Hong Kong results on the Figural Test were generally higher than those obtained in Taiwan, Singapore, and USA, but slightly lower than the German results. This trend in the results was reversed on the Verbal Forms. The absence of sex differences on the TTCT was noted.     

A Comparison of Delinquent and Non-Delinquent Boys with Respect to Certain Attitudes

Abstract

(Porter, E. H., Jr. An Introduction to Psychotherapeutic Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950. Pp. 223.) Reviewed by Philip Lawrence Harriman.     

Internal structure and standardised scores of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking

The present work sets out to study the internal structure of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT) and to establish standardised scores that will enable the test to be used in both a diagnostic and educational context. 649 students (319 girls and 330 boys), aged 5 to 12 years from various schools in Murcia and Alicante (SE Spain), took part in the study. The findings suggest that the psychometric characteristics of TTCT are satisfactory, and its internal structure can be attributed to three factors that are responsible for a high percentage of the variance (73.8%). The standardised score tables, which are provided for first time in this context, will be useful in the evaluation of creativity and the identification of students with high intellectual abilities.     

Factor Structure of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking Verbal Form B in a Spanish‐speaking Population

The objective of this study was to compare, through a Confirmatory Factor Analysis, two different theoretical models that explain the operationalized creativity construct with the Verbal Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), Form B. Model 1 is represented by six factors which correspond to each activity and its respective indicators while Model 2 is integrated by three factors which correspond to each TTCT ability (i.e., Fluency, Originality, and Flexibility) and the corresponding indicators for each variable. The study was carried out with a sample consisting of 432 Spanish‐speaking youngsters of both sexes aged 15–26. According to the research findings, the model which showed the most satisfactory fit identifies six correlated factors that correspond to each of the activities proposed (χ² = 414.48; df = 116; χ²/df = 3.57; GFI = .90; NFI = .95; CFI = .96 and RMSEA = .077). These results are discussed according to its psychometric implications for the construct assessment in different fields.     

Association with Delinquent Peers: Intervention Effects for Youth in the Juvenile Justice System

Although association with delinquent peers is a recognized precursor to ongoing delinquency problems, youth in the juvenile justice system are commonly prescribed intervention services that aggregate delinquent youth. However, little is known about the process variables that mediate the relationship between aggregating youth in intervention settings and poor subsequent outcomes. We examined data from two randomized intervention trials (one male sample and one female sample) with delinquent adolescents placed either in Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC) or in group care. Path analyses suggested that the MTFC youth had fewer associations with delinquent peers at 12 months than did the group care youth. Further, associating with delinquent peers during the course of the intervention mediated the relationship between group condition and 12-month delinquent peer association. Implications for the development of interventions with delinquent youth are discussed.     

A Comparative Study of Creative Thinking of American And Japanese College Students

Cross-cultural differences in creative thinking were assessed for 51 American and 54 Japanese college students. The American college students showed statistically significantly higher scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) figural test than the Japanese college students. No gender differences were found in either culture. Performance on the TTCT did not correlate with the performance on broad academic aptitude/achievement measures for either culture.     

Developing and Testing a Turkish Version of Torrance's Tests of Creative Thinking: A Study of Adults

The present study had two purposes. The first was to translate one of the most popular creativity measures in the West, the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, into Turkish and to check the equivalency of the Turkish version against the original English measure. The second, after developing an equivalent form of the TTCT in Turkish, was to compare the creative abilities of an adult Turkish sample, as measured by the Turkish TTCT, against data collected in the United States. All four formats of Torrance's tests were translated into Turkish and evaluated for reliability and equivalency. Students in an English Language Teachers program completed both the original version of the TTCT and the newly translated Turkish version. Analysis of their scores showed a high degree of correspondence between the two language versions. Afterwards, the Turkish TTCT was used to collect data from more than 800 research participants. A cross‐cultural comparison was made to data previously collected in the United States. A number of significant differences emerged between the Turkish and United States samples, such as Verbal Fluency, Verbal Originality, and Abstractness of Titles. These and other results are discussed, such as a comparison between males and females in the Turkish sample.     

Delinquent Peer Influence on Childhood Delinquency: The Moderating Effect of Impulsivity

A link between delinquent peer affiliations and childhood delinquency has been consistently found in the literature. However, little to no research has examined how the characteristics of an individual may impact this association. Impulsivity may be an important individual characteristic to consider, as impulsivity is associated with childhood delinquency. Accordingly, the current study examined the potential moderating effect of impulsivity on the association between peer delinquency and child delinquency in a community sample of 89 children ranging from 9 to 12 years of age (mean = 10.4 ± 1.1 yrs). Findings suggest that at low levels of impulsivity peer delinquency and child delinquency were positively associated; however at high levels of impulsivity peer delinquency and child delinquency were not statistically related. These findings may suggest that children who exhibit low levels of impulsivity are particularly vulnerable to delinquent peer influences. Implications for findings are discussed.     

The Juvenile Counseling and Assessment Model and Program: A Conceptualization and Intervention for Juvenile Delinquency

This article presents a model of conceptualization and intervention for juvenile delinquency. The model includes the characteristics of the adolescent, the ecological context in which the adolescent lives, and the interaction among these variables. Intervention addressing these variables is presented. A specific integrated service, training, and research project that is based on the model is described. The Juvenile Counseling and Assessment Program is a collaborative approach, joining university counseling faculty, educators, graduate students, and juvenile court system personnel in the mutual goals of reducing delinquency and increasing adaptive skills.     

Different Pathways to Juvenile Delinquency: Characteristics of Early and Late Starters in a Sample of Previously Incarcerated Youth

We examined the differences between early and late start juvenile delinquents in a sample of 531 previously incarcerated youth in Oregon's juvenile justice system. Data were analyzed with logistic regression to predict early start delinquency based on four explanatory variables: foster care experience, family criminality, special education disability, and socioeconomic status. Youth with foster care experience were four times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no foster care experience. Youth with a family member convicted of a felony were two times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no family felony. Implications for future research are discussed, as well as implications for practice and policy. We suggest that future studies examine differences between male and female delinquents, the effects of foster care on children, and interfamilial processes that facilitate criminal behavior. Efforts to support children and families at risk of abuse and neglect should be reexamined in light of the results of our study, which adds to the emerging knowledge base regarding the relationships between violence experienced in early childhood, and future criminal behavior.     

Effects of Racial Discrimination,Childhood Trauma,and Trauma Symptoms on Juvenile Delinquency in African American Incarcerated Youth

To understand racial disproportionality in juvenile delinquency, we studied relationships between 2 possible contributors: effects of manifestations of a structural factor (racism) and psychological consequences of trauma. Informed by Carter’s (2007) theory of race-based trauma, we explored the role of experiences of racial discrimination, childhood trauma, and trauma symptoms in juvenile delinquency through self-reported experiences of incarcerated African American youth. We found that childhood trauma, trauma symptoms, and racial discrimination experiences all significantly contributed to juvenile delinquency, but participants who experienced greater racial discrimination had higher posttraumatic stress symptoms and elevated delinquency rates. Considering the well-documented effects of trauma symptoms on juvenile delinquency, race-based trauma experiences might help us understand one aspect of racial disproportionality in juvenile delinquency.