政策启示:社会规范对减少烟酒摄入的作用

中国是烟酒消费大国,本文旨在通过总结社会规范这一预测与影响个体行为的重要因素的作用机制,为制定有效帮助人们减少烟酒摄入的政策提供建议。本文评述了命令性规范与描述性规范如何以不同的作用机制影响个体行为,本土文化如何影响社会规范对行为的作用。而后分别针对两类社会规范及本土文化因素的作用提出政策建议。     

眼睛效应不稳定与感知规范：一个新视角

眼睛效应指人们面对眼睛或类似眼睛的图案时会发生行为改变的现象。但是, 眼睛效应的稳健性备受争议, 主要有4种观点：促使人们更亲社会、更遵守社会规范、降低反社会行为、无效果。结合规范错觉和创新扩散理论, 基于感知规范的视角, 当感知亲社会规范流行程度较高时, 眼睛效应既会“促进亲社会行为”或“促进人们遵守社会规范”, 也会“降低反社会行为”; 但当感知亲社会规范流行程度较低时, 眼睛效应对一些反社会行为“无效果”; 当规范错觉较大且无规范干预时, 眼睛效应同样对一些反社会行为无效果。因此, 将以上4种争议观点整合为“不同感知规范条件下的眼睛效应”, 揭示了眼睛效应不稳定的原因, 为未来实证研究和实践应用提供理论基础。     

理性行动-社会认同整合性集体行动模型

为探究理性行动理论和社会认同理论两大社会心理学宏论对于个体集体行动参与倾向的共同解释力,以“中日撞船事件”为考察蓝本向天津市431名大学生被试进行调查研究,结果发现：效能和社会规范作为态度和行动倾向的中介变量,在不同情境下对行动倾向的作用不同,符合理性行动原则;内部动机作为态度和效能、社会规范之间的中介变量,并受到学校认同和国家认同的直接或间接影响,支持了社会认同理论对遵从规范行为的解释;回归分析验证了不同水平认同对行动倾向作用程度的差异,整合模型则揭示了其具体的作用路径和影响机制.结论：理性行动理论与社会认同理论可彼此互补成为集体行动参与的整合性解释框架.     

“惩前毖后”与“率先垂范”：第三方干预行为的影响效应

第三方干预是维持和发展社会规范的关键力量,对整个人类群体具有进化意义。补偿和惩罚是第三方干预的两种主要形式,二者均是维护社会规范的重要力量,具有恢复得失平衡以及促进规范遵从的积极作用。研究者广泛认可威慑效应是第三方惩罚促进规范遵从的主要作用机制,然而也有许多研究结果与该假说相悖。除威慑作用外,第三方干预行为作为高代价信号,也具有澄清社会规范、改变人们规范知觉的作用,这暗示着信号效应可能也是第三方干预促进规范遵从的重要作用机制。探究第三方惩罚促进规范遵从的边界条件、检验第三方补偿等非破坏性措施在维护社会规范方面的有效性是未来研究的重要方向。     

守范?失范?——作为参照点的社会规范对决策行为的影响

作为参照点的社会规范指个体为实现群体目标保持活动一致性所建立起来的、视为决策与判断标准的规范。社会规范研究经历了从完全理性到有限理性的转变过程。其对决策行为影响的解释机制包括预期理论、后悔理论、"齐当别"抉择模型、程数说和三参照点理论等,能较好解释避税、见死不救与医患冲突等现象。今后研究注意结合社会认知角度,实现研究思想与范式的转变,侧重探索多重参照点、群体决策机制,丰富跨文化研究等,为转型期的守范与失范行为提供科学的解释。     

环境自我认同对大学生低碳行为的影响

基于自我决定理论,采用环境自我认同、热光效应、低碳行为、社会规范等量表对467名在校大学生进行问卷调查,探讨环境自我认同对低碳行为的影响、热光效应的中介作用和社会规范的调节作用。结果发现:(1)环境自我认同对低碳行为具有正向影响;(2)环境自我认同部分通过热光效应的中介作用对低碳行为产生间接影响;(3)社会规范在热光效应对低碳行为的影响中有正向调节作用,社会规范在环境自我认同对低碳行为的影响中调节作用不显著。     

社会规范的动态过程

社会心理学的经典研究将社会规范区分为描述性规范与指令性规范。近年来, 研究者从以往对社会规范的静态区分, 开始深入研究社会规范“如何发展变化”的动态过程, 即探究社会规范的习得、传播与转变过程, 以及社会规范发挥作用的影响因素。社会规范的习得可以追溯至童年早期的社会互动, 描述性规范的形成是个体在社会网络中学习社会范畴典型范例的过程, 对现状的合理化催生了描述性规范向指令性规范的转化。社会规范发挥作用也呈现动态性, 不仅与社会规范的心理功能相关, 即遵守或违反社会规范能满足个体的安全感、归属感、独特感需要等, 还与外部环境如权力位置、惩罚机制相关。未来研究可对社会规范形成过程、作用过程做进一步分析; 结合社会规范强度研究, 深入探讨规范性影响的作用过程; 开展文化情境下的社会规范研究等。     

情感事件视角下空气污染触发的消极情绪对工作场所环保行为的动态影响机制

摘要 鉴于当今空气污染问题日益严峻,如何激发员工的环保行为成为了各界关注的话题。本研究基于情感事件理论,从主动的视角来探讨人们在空气污染情境中产生消极情绪后的积极应对行为。运用经验取样法,对68名在职员工进行了为期14天的跟踪调查。研究发现：（1）个体每日因空气污染引发的消极情绪与每日的环保行为正相关;（2）风险感知和环保激情在个体因空气污染引发的消极情绪与环保行为之间存在链式中介作用;（3）调节焦点调节了个体每日因空气污染引发的消极情绪对每日的环保行为的影响,防御焦点弱化二者间的关系,而促进焦点的调节作用不显著。以上成果丰富了人们对空气污染触发的消极情绪动态影响机制的认识,为后续研究提供了良好的研究视角和基础,为企业可持续发展的经营管理提供了的实践启示。     

松-紧文化:跨文化心理学研究的新维度

松-紧文化是跨文化心理学研究的新维度,它发轫于人类学的文化田野考察,致力于刻画不同文化间社会规范强度和对偏差行为宽容程度的结构性特征.松-紧文化有其较为明确的概念定义和成因,以及在国家、区域和个体层次上的测量方法.松-紧文化已广泛运用于自我、人格、心理健康与幸福感、判断与决策、创新、脑认知神经和基因、恐怖主义与社会和谐等心理学基础和应用研究主题之中.未来研究可进一步甄别细分社会规范中的描述性规范和命令性规范,并综合吸收其它研究视角的长处.     

市场规范与社会规范冲突视角下的奖励推荐计划作用机制

奖励推荐计划(referral reward program, RRP)越来越成为企业获取新顾客和保留老顾客的有力武器, 然而有关RRP对消费者推荐行为影响的研究却较为匮乏。从RRP引发社会规范与市场规范冲突的视角出发, 以营销学、动机心理学、情绪心理学及行为经济学为基础, 系统研究RRP对推荐行为的影响。具体内容包括：研究奖励框架与社会规范对消费者推荐动机的作用; 探究情绪在动机一致性与推荐行为之间的中介作用; 关注因果定向、自我意识及文化价值观等自我层面因素对以上过程的调节作用。将主要采用系列实验并结合神经营销学方法, 力图彻底搞清现有研究中的争论话题和填补研究空白, 这对从社会规范与市场规范相冲突的视角探讨以动机为主题的RRP研究具有重要的理论意义, 同时对中外企业了解奖励对消费者推荐行为的影响机制以及设计合理有效的RRP具有显著的指导意义。     

Subverting Culture: Promoting HIV/AIDS Prevention Among Puerto Rican and Dominican Women

This article discusses the challenges faced by researchers and interventionists when attempting to promote change in social norms and normative beliefs that promote HIV/AIDS risk-related behaviors among Puerto Rican and Dominican women. The article focuses on the role of culture in HIV/AIDS prevention with women by analyzing the sociohistorical context of some cultural beliefs and by illustrating the tension between risk-related and protective cultural beliefs in research conducted by the authors with women in both New York and Puerto Rico. The authors propose that promoting changes in sex-related social norms and normative beliefs might be constructed as a subversive act and present the challenge this analysis poses for community psychology. They conclude that this conceptualization might be construed as subversive because rather than idealizing culture, it promotes changes that respect diversity within the culture and foster participation in the development of new cultural values, beliefs and norms.     

Misperceptions about Norm Misperceptions: Descriptive,Injunctive, and Affective ‘Social Norming’ Efforts to Change Health Behaviors

We have known for a long time that people are often motivated to conform to the wishes of groups. Such peer influence can shape human behavior through the creation of social norms, and the frequency of some health behaviors (e.g., alcohol use) may depend on the perception of these norms. We discuss the influence of perceived social norms, especially normative misperceptions on health behaviors. We then describe social norms campaigns that are intended to reduce risky health behaviors by ‘debiasing’ perceptions of behavioral norms, and we point out practical problems and faulty theoretical assumptions of such interventions. A better alternative might be to develop interventions that debias misperceptions of injunctive norms or affective norms, although such alternatives have not yet been adequately tested. Still, we present the theoretical grounding for these different approaches and preliminary data suggesting that they could be successful in reducing risky health behaviors.     

Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: the struggle for internalization

The authors studied social norms and prejudice using M. Sherif and C. W. Sherif's (1953) group norm theory of attitudes. In 7 studies (N = 1,504), social norms were measured and manipulated to examine their effects on prejudice; both normatively proscribed and normatively prescribed forms of prejudice were included. The public expression of prejudice toward 105 social groups was very highly correlated with social approval of that expression. Participants closely adhere to social norms when expressing prejudice, evaluating scenarios of discrimination, and reacting to hostile jokes. The authors reconceptualized the source of motivation to suppress prejudice in terms of identifying with new reference groups and adapting oneself to fit new norms. Suppression scales seem to measure patterns of concern about group norms rather than personal commitments to reducing prejudice; high suppressors are strong norm followers. Compared with low suppressors, high suppressors follow normative rules more closely and are more strongly influenced by shifts in local social norms. There is much value in continuing the study of normative influence and self-adaptation to social norms, particularly in terms of the group norm theory of attitudes.     

Differentiating Among Motives for Norm Conformity

Two studies investigated why individuals conform to social norms. The authors propose that individuals conform to social norms to satisfy 3 general motives: accuracy, self-related, and other-related. Building on previous behavior prediction models, Study 1 found that measures of norms that identify specific motivational goals predicted behavior and intention better than did standard measures of social norms that consider only other-related motives for conformity. Study 2 investigated whether variations in the situational context are associated with alterations in motivational reasons for conforming to norms. Results indicated that one's motives for conforming to norms are sensitive to situational constraints. The findings from both studies suggest that, when predicting normative influences on behavior, research should address multiple motives underlying conformity with social norms.     

The identification of deviance: A conceptualization and initial test of a model of social norms

This paper outlines and initially tests a conceptual model of social norms, within the context of a general research framework for examining how deviant behaviour is identified and responded to. Norms are examined vis-a-vis (a) the structure of beliefs and expectancies toward one's own and [deviant] individual's behaviour, and (b) normative focus, representing the social context of behaviour and the nature of the group the norm is shared within. The results showed both of these constituents to be salient to the application of the model to the identification of alcohol abuse, particularly in terms of (i) the relationship between normative structure and the recognition of and evaluation of deviant drinking, (ii) a strong influence of social context on norms and (iii) the finding of powerful differences in normative structure in socio-economically different communities. This latter effect is discussed in terms of the [social ecology] of norms. It is hoped that this model will have heuristic value in expediting theory based studies of both normative regulation, and perceptions of abnormal behaviour.     

Smell and Taste Classification of the Same Stimuli

Much literature has suggested that people who are discriminated against or are in collectivist cultures are particularly susceptible to the social consequences of society. In the present study, the authors conducted 3 experiments to test how this factor influences attitudinal versus normative control over behaviors. First, they measured males’ and females’ attitudes, subjective norms, and behavioral intentions with respect to a large number of behaviors. Although between-participants analyses were mostly uninformative, within-participants analyses uncovered strong evidence that behaviors are more under attitudinal control for females than for males. Similar analyses in a crosscultural experiment involving participants from the United States, the United Kingdom, China, and Mexico support the hypothesis that behaviors are more under attitudinal control for collectivists than for individualists. Finally, experimental data collected in the United States and Saudi Arabia further support this conclusion. Taken together, the findings suggest that although social consequences are both “social” and “consequences,” the latter is more important than the former.