Context and structure: The nature of students' knowledge about three spatial diagram representations

The authors investigated whether college students possess abstract rules concerning the applicability conditions for three spatial diagrams that are important tools for thinking—matrices, networks, and hierarchies. A total of 127 students were asked to select which type of diagram would be best for organising the information in each of several short scenarios. The scenarios were written using three different story contexts: (a) neutral, presenting a real-life situation but not cueing a particular representation; (b) abstract, presenting only variable names and relations; and (c) incongruent, in which the context and informational structure cued different representations. The results indicated above-chance performance on the abstract scenarios, as well as comparable performance on the abstract and neutral context scenarios. In a follow-up study in which eight students thought out loud while selecting diagrams for the abstract scenarios, there were almost no references to concrete examples. The results of these studies suggest that students possess abstract rules concerning the applicability conditions for matrices, networks, and hierarchies.     

Generalized Logical Consequence: Making Room for Induction in the Logic of Science

We present a framework that provides a logic for science by generalizing the notion of logical (Tarskian) consequence. This framework will introduce hierarchies of logical consequences, the first level of each of which is identified with deduction. We argue for identification of the second level of the hierarchies with inductive inference. The notion of induction presented here has some resonance with Popper's notion of scientific discovery by refutation. Our framework rests on the assumption of a restricted class of structures in contrast to the permissibility of classical first-order logic. We make a distinction between deductive and inductive inference via the notions of compactness and weak compactness. Connections with the arithmetical hierarchy and formal learning theory are explored. For the latter, we argue against the identification of inductive inference with the notion of learnable in the limit. Several results highlighting desirable properties of these hierarchies of generalized logical consequence are also presented.     

Living things as hierarchically organized structures

Hierarchical organization is an essential characteristic of living things. Although most biologists affirm the concept of living things as hierarchically organized structures, there are widespread differences of interpretation in the meaning of hierarchy and of how the concept of hierarchy applies to living things. One such basic difference involves the distinction between the concept of control hierarchy and classification hierarchy. It is suggested that control hierarchies are distinguished from classification hierarchies in that while the former involve authority relationships between levels, the latter do not. This is illustrated in an analysis of proposed hierarchies of replicators and interactors.The analysis of levels of hierarchies and their relationships also brings up the part-whole problem. An authority relationship between levels implies that the whole has a determining influence on the parts that make up the whole, and that parts have no independent, meaningful existence apart from the whole. The concept of an authority relationship in a part-whole relationship introduces the question of the independence or sovereignty of the components of the subordinate levels in a hierarchically organized living thing. This problem is discussed along with an analysis of the rather novel theory of enkapsis proposed by H. Dooyeweerd, in which he distinguishes part-whole relationships from enkaptic relationships.     

Probing recursion

The experimental probing of recursion in human performance is faced with non-trivial problems. Here, I analyse three case studies from the literature and argue that they tell us little about the underlying mental processes at play within each of these domains: (a) the question of whether experimental participants employ recursive rules in parsing artificial strings of nonsense syllables; (b) the role of self-embedded structures in reasoning and general cognition; and (c) the reputed connection between structural features of a given object and the corresponding, recursive rules needed to represent/generate it. I then outline what a recursive process would actually look like and how one could go about probing its presence in human behaviour, concluding, however, that recursive processes in performance are very unlikely, at least as far as fast, mandatory, and automatic modular processes are concerned.     

On the (in)stability of dominance hierarchies in the cichlid fish Oreochromis mossambicus

Dominance hierarchies were studied during 8 weeks in eight heterosexual captive groups of Oreochromis mossambicus at the onset of sexual maturity. Linearity was assessed for each group on a weekly basis based on the Landau's index (h) and on the procedure described by Appleby [Appleby MC (1983): Animal Behaviour 31:600–608]. Week-to-week stability of the hierarchical structures was measured using the Burk's stability index (b) and Spearman rank correlation coefficients for the ranks of fishes in consecutive weeks. The two measures of stability showed a high level of concordance but the Spearman rank correlations were more conservative in detecting cases of stability. Although most dominance structures were linear they were unstable from week to week. Dominant individuals were less likely to experience rank reversals than subordinates. Rank reversals were especially likely among hierarchical neighbors. Dominance hierarchies did not stabilize in the time span of this study. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Singular troubles with singleton socrates

I identify a problem for Kit Fine’s truthmaker semantics for ground: it excludes a range of plausible structures of grounding hierarchies. Specifically, there is an attractive view about the grounds of the existence of individual singleton sets which is inconsistent under the truthmaker account. I then develop a modification of the truthmaker account which avoids this difficulty and show that it preserves most of the desirable features of the original account, such as the propositional logic of ground it yields.     

BDSM as a Playful Learning Site for Qualitative Complexity

Abstract

Through an autoethnographic and transdisciplinary discussion of BDSM practice, the article articulates BDSM as a performative playful space with high potential for experiential learning, where conventional ways of sensing, feeling, thinking, valuing and acting, and social rules and hierarchies are rendered uncertain, negotiable and full of possibilities. BDSM can foster a sensibility to qualitative complexity through a heightened corporeal, sensual, emotional and (aesth)et(h)ic experience. It trains a potent sagacity that may be further mobilized in social learning processes, eventually helping us navigate beyond today’s unsustainable times.     

语言和音乐层级结构的加工

语言和音乐在呈现过程中, 小单元相互结合组成更大的单元, 最终形成层级结构。已有研究表明, 听者能够将连续的语流和音乐切分成层级结构, 并在大脑中形成层级表征。在感知基础之上, 听者还能将新出现的语言和音乐事件整合到层级结构之中, 形成连贯理解, 最终顺利地完成交流过程。未来研究应剖析边界线索在层级结构感知中的作用, 考察不同层级整合过程的影响因素, 进一步探索语言和音乐层级结构加工的关系。     

Tucker3 hierarchical classes analysis

This paper presents a new model for binary three-way three-mode data, called Tucker3 hierarchical classes model (Tucker3-HICLAS). This new model generalizes Leenen, Van Mechelen, De Boeck, and Rosenberg's (1999) individual differences hierarchical classes model (INDCLAS). Like the INDCLAS model, the Tucker3-HICLAS model includes a hierarchical classification of the elements of each mode, and a linking structure among the three hierarchies. Unlike INDCLAS, Tucker3-HICLAS (a) does not restrict the hierarchical classifications of the three modes to have the same rank, and (b) allows for more complex linking structures among the three hierarchies. An algorithm to fit the Tucker3-HICLAS model is described and evaluated in an extensive simulation study. An application of the model to hostility data is discussed.The first author is a Research Assistant of the Fund for Scientific Research-Flanders (Belgium). The research reported in this paper was partially supported by the Research Council of K.U. Leuven (GOA/2000/02). We are grateful to Kristof Vansteelandt for providing us with an interesting data set.     

Biased judgments of the effects of speed change on travel time,fuel consumption and braking: Individual differences in the use of simplifying rules producing the same biases

The main purpose of this study was to identify different cognitive rules that lead to a particular judgment bias. To fulfill this purpose, a new method Spectral analysis was introduced and applied. Participants judged time saved by driving faster, fuel saved by replacing a car and braking capacity at different speeds. These problems invite the time saving bias (e.g., time saved from speed increases at higher speeds overestimated), the miles per gallon, MPG illusion (misjudgment of fuel saved by replacing a car) and the braking capacity bias (overestimation of braking capacity after speed increase). The average results replicated the biases. Spectral analysis of individual participants and problems showed that a speed difference rule explained about half of the time saving judgments and about three fourth of the MPG judgments. A difference between speeds rule described about one third of the biased braking judgments and a ratio/proportion rule about one fifth of the time saving and MPG judgments. All rules give biased judgments in all three domains. The paper ends with a discussion of hierarchies of cognitive rules, applications of the results, and how to mitigate or avoid the biases and the risks associated with the biases.     

Effects of self-generated rules on the development of schedule-controlled behavior.

College students responded under a multiple differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate 5-s fixed-ratio 8 schedule, with components alternating every 2 min. After 40 programmed minutes of acquisition and 12 min of maintenance, without notice, both schedules changed to extinction for 28 min. During acquisition, between alternations of the multiple schedule, some subjects were asked to develop rules describing the schedule contingencies. Other subjects were given these same rules between alternations, and a third group neither received nor were asked to develop rules. By the end of the acquisition phase, self-generated-rule subjects were more likely to show schedule-typical behavior than were subjects not asked to generate rules. The behavior of those given rules was similar to those asked to generate rules at the end of acquisition, but yoked-rule subjects acquired schedule-typical behavior at a quicker rate. By the end of extinction, during the period corresponding to the previous fixed-ratio interval, all no-rule subjects who had earned points during acquisition and maintenance were responding at a rate of less than 30 responses per minute. Only 3 of the 9 self-generated-rule subjects and 2 of the 5 yoked-rule subjects were similarly responding at this low rate. Results suggest that asking subjects to develop self-rules facilitates acquisition, but can retard extinction. Results also suggest that self-generated rules function similarly to external rules.     

Facet-like Structures in Computer Science

This paper discusses how facet-like structures occur as a commonplace feature in a variety of computer science disciplines as a means for structuring class hierarchies. The paper then focuses on a mathematical model for facets (and class hierarchies in general), called formal concept analysis, and discusses graphical representations of faceted systems based on this model.

Feature importance in feature generation and typicality rating

Many theoretical models of cognition are based on the assumption that cognitive processes and representations are hierarchically structured. The issue of whether these hierarchies are mere constructs or conceptual tools, or whether they have psychological and neurological reality, is addressed. Theories across a range of cognitive domains are reviewed and four kinds of evidence are considered: behavioural, neuropsychological, ontogenetic, and logical. Logical constraints are identified in relation to operating principles of control, access, economy and analogy. The general characteristics of hierarchical structures and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.     

Down with the Hierarchies

Evidence hierarchies are widely used to assess evidence in systematic reviews of medical studies. I give several arguments against the use of evidence hierarchies. The problems with evidence hierarchies are numerous, and include methodological shortcomings, philosophical problems, and formal constraints. I argue that medical science should not employ evidence hierarchies, including even the latest and most-sophisticated of such hierarchies.     

Evaluating the stability,validity, and utility of hierarchies produced by the Social Interaction Preference Assessment

Morris and Vollmer (2020) evaluated a novel method of assessing preference for social interaction, which they called the Social Interaction Preference Assessment (SIPA), and found it often produced hierarchies similar to a concurrent operant reinforcer assessment. We replicated and extended these findings. In study 1, we evaluated the stability of the SIPA hierarchies by conducting multiple SIPAs with 5 participants diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). In Study 2, we evaluated the validity and utility of these hierarchies by providing different social interactions as consequences for skill acquisition tasks with 3 participants from the first study. Varying degrees of stability in the SIPA hierarchies and a high level of correspondence between these hierarchies and rates of acquisition during the reinforcer assessment were observed. These findings and their implications are discussed.     

Slow Versus Fast Growing

We survey a selection of results about majorization hierarchies. The main focus is on classical and recent results about the comparison between the slow and fast growing hierarchies.