An economic perspective on the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory postulates personality factors of ‘reward sensitivity’ and ‘punishment sensitivity’ linked to neural systems that control approach and avoidance, respectively. In contrast, behavioural economics distinguishes gain (‘reward’) and loss (‘punishment’) valuation systems that are orthogonal to approach/avoidance behaviour. We combined gain and loss with both their presentation and omission and found evidence for separate gain valuation, loss valuation, approach, and avoidance systems. This suggests that it is possible to integrate valuation/input and behaviour/output views of ‘reward’ and ‘punishment’ in a way that may be of use to both personality theory and economics and so forge closer links between these two major perspectives on decision-making and behaviour.     

Borderline personality disorder and emotion regulation: insights from the Polyvagal Theory

The current study provides the first published evidence that the parasympathetic component of the autonomic nervous system differentiates the response profiles between individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and controls. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a non-invasive marker of the influence of the myelinated vagal fibers on the heart, and heart period were collected during the presentation of film clips of varying emotional content. The BPD and control groups had similar initial levels of RSA and heart period. However, during the experiment the groups exhibited contrasting trajectories, with the BPD group decreasing RSA and heart period and the control group increasing RSA and heart period. By the end of the experiment, the groups differ significantly on both RSA and heart period. The correlation between the changes in RSA and heart period was significant only for the control group, suggesting that vagal mechanisms mediated the heart period responses only in the control group. The findings were consistent with the Polyvagal Theory [Porges, S. W. (1995). Orienting in a defensive world: Mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage: A Polyvagal Theory. Psychophysiology, 32, 301-318; Porges, S. W. (2001). The Polyvagal Theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 123-146; Porges, S. W. (2003). Social engagement and attachment: A phylogenetic perspective. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 31-47.], illustrating different adaptive shifts in autonomic state throughout the course of the experiment. The BPD group ended in a physiological state that supports the mobilization behaviors of fight and flight, while the control group ended in a physiological state that supports social engagement behaviors. These finding are consistent with other published studies demonstrating atypical vagal regulation of the heart with other psychiatric disorders.     

Jackson-5 scales of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) and their application to dysfunctional real world outcomes

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) is a neurobiological theory of personality which has many differences compared to the original version. This highlights the need for measurement scales to reflect the revised theory. Study 1 uses exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to develop and test new scales (the ‘Jackson-5’) which are shown to be internally reliable, have scale inter-relationships matching theory, and to have desirable construct validity properties. Study 2 compares r-RST with original RST in the prediction of delinquency and psychopathy in students. Results suggest the new scales capture the main properties of r-RST and indicate that r-RST provides a substantially different explanation of the personality basis of dysfunctional behavior compared to original RST.     

Perfectionism and Interpersonal Sensitivity in Social Phobia: The Interpersonal Aspects of Perfectionism

We examined perfectionism, interpersonal sensitivity and dysfunctional cognitions in patients with Social Phobia (SP). The sample consisted of a clinical group with a diagnosis of SP (n?=?30) and a non clinical group (n?=?30), matched for age and gender. Both groups were assessed on Frost??s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS), Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure (IPSM), and Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS). The clinical sample was also assessed on Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), Beck??s Depression Inventory-II, Eysenck??s Personality Inventory-Neuroticism sub-scale (EPI- N). The two groups were compared on FMPS, IPSM and DAS using t-test. Associations between FMPS, IPSM, DAS and predictors of social anxiety and depression were examined. The clinical group scored higher on perfectionism, interpersonal sensitivity and dysfunctional cognitions. There was no significant association between total scores on FMPS and IPSM. However subscales of IPSM and FMPS were correlated. Doubt about Actions was associated with Separation Anxiety (r?=?0.520) and Timidity (r?=?0.407). Organization was related to Interpersonal Awareness (r?=?0.371) and Separation Anxiety (r?=?0.407). Parental criticism was negatively associated with fragile inner self. DAS was positively correlated with FMPS and IPSM. Interpersonal sensitivity emerged as a significant predictor of social anxiety. Discriminant Functional Analysis indicated that concern over mistakes, organization, fragile inner self, separation anxiety discriminated between the clinical and non-clinical groups.     

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for psychopathology and psychological health

We examined the utility of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) in comparison with original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (o-RST) in further understanding psychopathology and well-being. In line with theory, we found o-BIS to be a non-specific predictor of anxiety and stress whereas r-BIS and r-FFFS scales were predictors of anxiety and stress. Consistent with the joint systems hypothesis, depression was associated with r-BIS, but only when r-BAS was low. The r-BAS, low o-BIS and low r-Freeze were the only predictors of psychological well-being. These findings suggest that r-BAS as we measured it reflects more functional approach behaviour than measures of o-BAS. Further, while o-BIS appears to be associated with broad negative affective states, the parsing of r-BIS from fear potentially provides r-RST with a more refined understanding of psychopathology and reduced well-being.     

The affective personality,sleep, and autobiographical memories

Patterns of affect, sleep, and autobiographical memories seem related but there are no studies we know of to verify the notion. The purpose of this research is to investigate interrelationships’ between profiles of affect, sleep, and autobiographical memories. A cross-sectional design is employed. Three hundred and thirteen adult students participated. The data generated are viewed from two complementary perspectives. Our cluster analyses identified a group of individual states whose lives appear to be arousing and stressful (high positive and negative affect) yet they slept significantly better than self-destructive states (high on negative affect and low on positive affect). Our regressions imply that negative autobiographical memories are involved in a relationship with sleep independently of fairly stable patterns of affect, biological sex, and age. We finish by noting that apart from investigating these relationships longitudinally, cultural differences in patterns of affect and their health correlates should be explored.     

Self-Critical Perfectionism,Daily Interpersonal Sensitivity,and Stress Generation: a Four-Year Longitudinal Study

This study of 145 community adults examined heightened interpersonal-sadness sensitivity as a mediator of the relationship between self-critical (SC) perfectionism and stress generation four years later. Participants completed questionnaires assessing perfectionism dimensions at Time 1, baseline depressive symptoms at Time 1 and Year 3, daily negative social interactions and affect for 14 consecutive days at Month 6 and Year 3, and a contextual-threat stress interview at Year 4. Path analyses indicated that SC perfectionism predicted daily interpersonal-sadness sensitivity (i.e., greater increases in sadness in response to increases in negative social interactions) between Month 6 and Year 3. This, in turn, explained why individuals with higher SC perfectionism had greater interpersonal stress generation four years later, controlling for the effects of depressive symptoms. Findings also demonstrated that responding to negative social interactions with broader negative affect or accumulated negative social interactions did not mediate the prospective relation between SC perfectionism and interpersonal stress generation. SC perfectionism was not related to Year 4 noninterpersonal stress generation or independent stress. Findings highlight the importance of targeting interpersonal-sadness sensitivity in order to reduce the propensity of SC perfectionistic individuals to generate negative interpersonal life events several years into the future.     

Domains and facets: hierarchical personality assessment using the revised NEO personality inventory

Personality traits are organized hierarchically, with narrow, specific traits combining to define broad, global factors. The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992c) assesses personality at both levels, with six specific facet scales in each of five broad domains. This article describes conceptual issues in specifying facets of a domain and reports evidence on the validity of NEO-PI-R facet scales. Facet analysis-the interpretation of a scale in terms of the specific facets with which it correlates-is illustrated using alternative measures of the five-factor model and occupational scales. Finally, the hierarchical interpretation of personality profiles is discussed. Interpretation on the domain level yields a rapid understanding of the individual interpretation of specific facet scales gives a more detailed assessment.     

Personality dynamics: insights from the personality social cognitive literature

Psychodynamic and social cognitive approaches to personality assessment converge now more so than at any time in the history of experimental psychology. This contribution seeks to make this point. First, the trait of neuroticism predisposes one to multiple adverse outcomes, a point not sufficiently captured by the current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Second, though, self-reported levels of neuroticism are insufficient in understanding problematic outcomes for multiple reasons. Third, there are ways of experimentally modeling the many processes of interest to psychodynamic theorists such as unconscious affective biases, implicit representations of self and other, and underlying deficits in self- and emotion regulation. Implicit approaches to assessment also provide clues to interventions targeting the processes of interest, a point that will be made as well.     

Shared genes, shared experiences, and similarity of personality: data from 14,288 adult Finnish co-twins

Similarities for Extraversion (E) and Neuroticism (N) scale scores from the Eysenck Personality Inventory were evaluated in 7,144 adult twin pairs, drawn from the population-based Finnish Twin Cohort, as a function of the co-twins' genetic resemblance, gender, age, and the frequency of their social interaction with each other. To separate effects of shared genes from those of shared experience, we performed hierarchical multiple regressions of double-entry data matrices. Results establish the predictive significance of both genetic and experiential influences: Genetic effects remained significant when tested after the effects of social contact were first removed; conversely, for N scores, the effects of social contact remained significant when assessed after genetic influences were first removed. These findings establish genetic variance in major dimensions of adult personality but assign a significant role to common experience as well. The first finding constructively replicates reports by others; the second challenges the widespread assumption that shared experiences have a negligible impact on sibling similarity in adult personality.     

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Laboratory Assessment of BIS and BAS in Children

There is considerable interest in Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory. However, few measures of the behavioral approach (BAS) and inhibition systems (BIS) exist for children. Moreover, the theory was substantially revised a decade ago and measurement instruments are still largely based on the old theory. Our aim was to revise questionnaire and laboratory assessments of BIS and BAS for children. Performance on the Point Scoring Reaction Time Task for Children-Revised (PSRTT-CR) conformed to theoretical expectations. Caregiver reports of BIS and BAS were associated with corresponding PSRTT-CR indices, suggesting cross-method convergent and discriminant validity. There was convergence with physiological correlates of BAS, but not physiological correlates of BIS. Overall, our revised measures represent promising instruments of children’s BIS and BAS.     

Concomitants of social support: Attitudes, personality characteristics, and life experiences

Determining the extent of social support and its consequences and personality correlates has been of increasing interest to researchers. The two studies reported here deal with the possibility that people low in social support are characterized by rigid, authoritarian personality characteristics and a lack of confidence in the support that informal social networks can provide. Groups differing in social support were compared on scales measuring attitudes toward mental illness and personal feelings of anomy. Subjects high in social support had more benign attitudes concerning the mentally ill and felt less anomy than did subjects low in social support. They also perceived their own early relationships with parents as being more positive. The findings are in agreement with several hypotheses about individual differences related to social support differences, and suggest that studies geared toward understanding the causal relations involved would be both theoretically and practically valuable.     

The relationship between Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST), handedness and indecision

Indecisiveness is an inability to make a decision, manifest across a number of behaviours. We explore the influence that both direction and strength of hand preference may have on this construct, examining it in relation to the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST). Frost and Shows’ (1993) Indecisiveness Scale was administered to 328 undergraduates (221 females), alongside the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (Oldfield, 1971) and Carver and White’s (1994) BIS/BAS scales. Simple correlations showed left-handers had a positive relationship between strength of handedness and BIS. In right-handers, strength and aversive indecision were positively correlated. Regression analysis demonstrated no significant relationship between hand strength and indecision, but that indecision was related to all three measures of rRST. Consistent with previous work, BIS was positively related to all indecision but particularly aversive, while BAS was negatively related to indecision but most strongly the avoidant category. We found that FFFS is more closely related to aversive than avoidant indecision. The relationship between rRST and indecision may be influenced by handedness; for right-handers the same pattern was found, but in left-handers BAS was not a significant predictor of indecision, BIS only predicted aversive indecision and FFFS predicted all three categories.     

Dual diagnosis: Clinical issues in the treatment of substance abuse,and affective,personality, and psychotic disorders

Co-morbidity of alcohol and substance with the spectrum of other psychiatric diagnoses is examined with specific emphasis on diagnostic indicators for anxiety and mood disorders. Diagnostic issues for the chemically dependent person are examined with the context of borderline personality disorder, schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. Clinical research related to the dually-diagnosed patient is explored     

Sensitivity to pain, self-regulation, coping and personality in healthy adult women

The goals of this study were to investigate the relation between sensitivity to pain and subjectively perceived intensity of pain, and to establish which psychological variables affect lesser or greater objective sensitivity to experimental pain. The study sample consisted of 74 adult women without regular pain symptoms. Experimental pain was induced by means of the Portable Electronic Dolorimeter (DEP). Intensity of induced pain was evaluated using a Visual Analogic Scale (VAS). Psychological characteristics studied were self-government, stress-coping strategies, sensitivity to anxiety and the five personality dimensions evaluated by the BFQ of Caprara, Barbaranelli and Borgogni (1995). Results revealed a positive relation between sensitivity to pain and subjective intensity of pain. An analysis of variance also revealed statistically significant differences between groups with low and high sensitivity to pain in the following variables: self-motivation, focalization in problem-solving, positive reappraisal of stressful events, energy and mental openness. The importance of the study lies in the identification of specific psychological factors for intervention in the psychological treatment of pain.     

Reliving emotional personal memories: affective biases linked to personality and sex-related differences

Although available evidence suggests that the emotional valence and recollective properties of autobiographical memories (AMs) may be influenced by personality- and sex-related differences, overall these relationships remain poorly understood. The present study investigated these issues by comparing the effect of general personality traits (extraversion and neuroticism) and specific traits linked to emotion regulation (ER) strategies (reappraisal and suppression) on the retrieval of emotional AMs and on the associated postretrieval emotional states, in men and women. First, extraversion predicted recollection of positive AMs in both men and women, whereas neuroticism predicted the proportion of negative AMs in men and the frequency of rehearsing negative AMs in women. Second, reappraisal predicted positive AMs in men, and suppression predicted negative AMs in women. Third, while reliving of positive memories had an overall indirect effect on postretrieval positive mood through extraversion, reliving of negative AMs had a direct effect on postretrieval negative mood, which was linked to inefficient engagement of suppression in women. Our findings suggest that personality traits associated with positive affect predict recollection of positive AMs and maintenance of a positive mood, whereas personality traits associated with negative affect, along with differential engagement of habitual ER strategies in men and women, predict sex-related differences in the recollection and experiencing of negative AMs. These findings provide insight into the factors that influence affective biases in reliving AMs, and into their possible link to sex-related differences in the susceptibility to affective disorders.     

College students with tattoos and piercings: motives, family experiences, personality factors, and perception by others

The motives, family experiences, and personality characteristics of 341 college students with and without tattoos or piercings were studied. Participants completed Lippa's 1991 measures of the Big Five personality factors, a shortened version of the Body Cathexis Scale, a series of questions about their childhood experiences, and questions about risk-taking behaviors. In addition, reasons to have or not have body modifications and the perceptions of people with body modifications were investigated. Of the 116 men and 186 women, 25% and 33%, respectively, had at least one tattoo or body piercing. There were very few differences in the childhood experiences or personality characteristics of people with or without body modifications. Although people with body modifications did not differ from people without modifications on the Big Five personality measures, people without modifications perceived people with modifications as much different from themselves on these measures. These results indicate that tattoos and piercings in college students are associated with significantly more risk-taking behavior, greater use of alcohol and marijuana, and less social conformity. However, the traditional stereotype that body modifications are indicators of social or personal pathology does not describe contemporary college students.     

Narcissism, Perfectionism, and Self-Termination from Treatment in Outpatient Cocaine Users

This study examines perfectionism in individuals with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV, Text Revised [American Psychiatric Association, 2000. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Text revision (DSM-TV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association] diagnosis of Narcissistic Personality Disorder and a coexisting diagnosis of cocaine abuse or dependence. Participating clients were treated in outpatient settings that provided cognitive-behavioral therapy. Clients were administered Hewitt and Flett's (1991b) [Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale prior to treatment. Scores for dimensions of perfectionism were compared with those obtained from cocaine abusers in treatment with diagnoses of Antisocial Personality or Affective Disorder. Clients with Narcissistic Personality Disorder were characterized by relatively higher levels of other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Survival analysis suggests that self-termination from treatment by cocaine-abusing clients with a diagnosis of Narcissistic Disorder is related to high levels of other-oriented perfectionism. The clinical implications and limits of this study are discussed.