Nightmare frequency and femininity/masculinity

Several large-scale studies showed that women tend to report nightmares more often than men. Despite this robust finding, empirically tested interpretations of these sex differences are lacking. Levin and Nielsen put forward the hypothesis that sex-specific socialization might be one of the risk factors for nightmare occurrence. The present findings of an online survey indicate that expressivity/femininity and instrumentality/masculinity were related to nightmare fre quency and, thus, supported this hypothesis. Since the sex difference in nightmare frequency was not fully explained by these two variables, future studies should investigate other variables--in addition to sex-role orientation--like depressive symptoms, history of sexual and/or physical abuse, ruminative coping styles, and physiological measures of processing emotional stimuli within the brain.     

Multidimensional self-concepts,masculinity, and femininity as a function of women's involvement in athletics

Measures of multidimensional self-concepts, masculinity (M), and femininity (F) were completed by high-school women athletes and nonathletes, and by young-adult women athletes and nonathletes. Women athletes in both age groups had substantially higher scores in M and in self-concept of physical ability, but did not differ substantially from nonathletes in F and in other areas of self-concept. Women athletes in both groups also judged their self-concept of physical ability to be more important to them than did nonathletes, but the two groups did not differ in the perceived importance of other areas of self-concept. These findings support the androgyny contention that MF should not be considered a bipolar construct and suggest that women can be more M without being less F. The specificity of the relation between athletic involvement and the multiple dimensions of self-concept also provide further support for the construct validity of the self-concept dimensions.The authors would like to acknowledge Lindsay McCaughan for his assistance in the design of the study, the staff and students at Pymble Ladies College, and the group of female powerlifters.     

The relationship between Eysenck's personality dimensions and Bem's masculinity and femininity scales revisited

A sample of 86 male and 93 female students in Wales completed the short form Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire together with the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The data indicate that high scores on the scale of masculinity are associated with high extraversion and low neuroticism, but unrelated to either psychoticism or the lie scale, while high scores on the scale of femininity are associated with low psychoticism, high neuroticism and high lie scale scores, but unrelated to extraversion.     

Sex-specific variation in facial masculinity/femininity associated with autistic traits in the general population

Reports linking prenatal testosterone exposure to autistic traits and to a masculinized face structure have motivated research investigating whether autism is associated with facial masculinization. This association has been reported with greater consistency for females than for males, in studies comparing groups with high and low levels of autistic traits. In the present study, we conducted two experiments to examine facial masculinity/femininity in 151 neurotypical adults selected for either low, mid-range, or high levels of autistic traits. In the first experiment, their three-dimensional facial photographs were subjectively rated by 41 raters for masculinity/femininity and were objectively analysed. In the second experiment, we generated 6-face composite images, which were rated by another 36 raters. Across both experiments, findings were consistent for ratings of photographs and composite images. For females, a linear relationship was observed where femininity ratings decreased as a function of higher levels of autistic traits. For males, we found a U-shaped function where males with mid-range levels of traits were rated lowest on masculinity. Objective facial analyses revealed that higher levels of autistic traits were associated with less feminine facial structures in females and less masculine structures in males. These results suggest sex-specific relationships between autistic traits and facial masculinity/femininity.     

Prototypes and dimensions of masculinity and femininity

Sex Roles - Researchers have criticized existing measures of masculinity and femininity, largely on the basis of their unidimensional nature. The purpose of the present research was twofold: first,...     

Relationship of femininity,masculinity, and gender to attribution of responsibility

Brickman, Rabinowitz, Karuza, Coates, Cohn, and Kidder (Models of Helping and Coping, American Psychologist, 1982, 37, 368–384) have proposed four attributional models defined by two dimensions: responsibility for causes of problems and for solutions to problems. The relationship of femininity masculinity, and gender to the attributtional models was explored in a sample of 205 subjects. Femininity and masculinity were measured with the Interpersonal Disposition Inventory (IDI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Subjects also responded to two measures of the attributional models. Findings included a significant association between femininity and low internal attribution of responsibility for problem solving. Results are discussed in terms of sex role and gender differences in help seeking.This paper is based in part on a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree at the University of Kentucky.I would like to thank Juris I. Berzins, Michael T. Nietzel, Jesse G. Harris, Jr., Caryl Rusbult, and Robert Straus for their assistance with the dissertation research; and Larry Panciera and Evelyn Crumpton for their comments on an earlier draft of the paper.     

Role of femininity and masculinity in distressed couples' communication

The relationship between sex role identity and marital communication of maritally distressed couples was examined. Interactional behavior of 60 maritally distressed couples was coded with the Marital Interaction Coding System and examined in relation to the level of femininity and masculinity of the spouses. Base-rate analyses indicated that femininity was positively related to greater rates of negative behavior among husbands and wives. As predicted, sequential analyses supported that wives' femininity was associated with greater negative reciprocity of the wives. Men's femininity was associated with husbands' tendency to terminate fewer negative sequences of behavior in comparison with their wives. High masculinity of the wives was associated with shorter sequences of negative behavior. Implications of the findings and future directions for research are discussed.     

The role of facial masculinity/femininity in the attribution of homosexuality

This study examined whether subjects would differentially perceive male and female faces as homosexual based upon facial masculinity/femininity, and the extent to which their attitudes toward homosexuals would influence their perceptions. Sixty-eight undergraduates indicated how likely they thought it was that 6 male and 6 female faces were homosexual; they also rated the individuals on attractiveness. The present sample also completed the Index of Homophobia, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale, a conservatism scale, and a demographic questionnaire. The subjects assigned higher homosexuality ratings to feminine male and masculine female faces compared to their masculine and feminine counterparts, respectively. In addition, unattractive female faces received higher attribution of homosexuality ratings compared to the attractive faces; such an effect was not observed for the male photographs. Sex of subject and attitudes toward homosexuality did not significantly affect evaluations.Portions of this paper were presented at the meetings of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, August 1989.     

A century of research on masculinity and femininity: a critical review

The psychological study of masculinity (M) and femininity (F) throughout the twentieth century shows two very different approaches. In the first half of last century, authors try to test the bipolar continuum hypothesis, whereas during the second half, the hypothesis of two orthogonal dimensions predominates. Empirical studies carried out in various countries with the classic M and F scales show that the data do not support: a) the bipolar continuum hypothesis; b) the close relationship between masculinity/men and femininity/women as the single pattern of functional development; and c) the convergence validity of the different assessment instruments. In turn, the empirical results obtained with the new M and F scales show: a) the multidimensionality instead of bi-dimensionality of the different scales; b) that the different M and F scales are not equivalent; and c) that there is no theory capable of guiding the development of new scales to assess these constructs. At the beginning of the 21st century, after the critical evaluation of the studies carried out during about 100 years, we face a critical question: is it worthwhile to continue talking about M and F within the field of science and, more specifically, within the field of psychology?     

Convergent and discriminant validity of selected masculinity and femininity scales

Using Campbell and Fiske's (1959) multitrait-multimethod matrix technique and Jackson's (1975) multimethod factor analysis, convergent and discriminant validity were investigated for masculinity and femininity scales from the Adjective Check List, Bem Sex Role Inventory, and PRF ANDRO Scale as compared with measures of dominance and nurturance. Results indicated very good convergent and discriminant validity for the masculinity and femininity scales from the Adjective Check List and Bem Inventory, but not for the PRF ANDRO Scale. Implications of these results for research on sex roles and psychological androgyny are discussed.     

Changes in femininity,masculinity, and self-regard among women alcoholics in residential treatment

Specially designed scales of Self-Regard, Masculinity, and Femininity were administered to 31 women alcoholics at several times during the course of a residential treatment program and to a comparison group of recovered alcoholics with long records of sobriety. The results show that (1) there is a sharp and immediate increase among alcoholic women in self-esteem during the first 30 days of rehabilitation; (2) this restoration of self-esteem is closely linked with a reaffirmation of femininity in older, but not in younger, women; (3) women with histories of homosexual involvement demonstrate a notably different pattern of self-reassessment.Fairfax-Falls Church Community Services BoardThis study was conducted with the support of grant #AA03185 from the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.     

The role of facial attractiveness and facial masculinity/femininity in sex classification of faces

We tested whether adults (experiment 1) and 4 - 5-year-old children (experiment 2) identify the sex of highly attractive faces faster and more accurately than not very attractive faces in a reaction-time task. We also assessed whether facial masculinity/femininity facilitated identification of sex. Results showed that attractiveness facilitated adults' sex classification of both female and male faces and children's sex classification of female, but not male, faces. Moreover, attractiveness affected the speed and accuracy of sex classification independently of masculinity/femininity. High masculinity in male faces, but not high femininity in female faces, also facilitated sex classification for both adults and children. These findings provide important new data on how the facial cues of attractiveness and masculinity/femininity contribute to the task of sex classification and provide evidence for developmental differences in how adults and children use these cues. Additionally, these findings provide support for Langlois and Roggman's (1990 Psychological Science 1 115 121) averageness theory of attractiveness.     

The development of the concepts of masculinity and femininity in young children

Sex-role concepts in 140 children aged 3 to 7 were assessed by means of an instrument that allowed children to categorize attributes as being characteristic of males only, females only, both males and females, or nobody. The children sorted attributes once for adult peer stimulus figures and once for peer stimulus figures. The relationship of gender conservation to the degree of stereotyping of children's response was also investigated. The overlap children saw between characteristics of males and females increased with age over the age span studied. Girls were less sex-typed than boys, particularly those girls whose mothers were employed. Gender conservation was associated with decreased sex-typing. The tendency of children to assign positive attributes to their own sex and negative attributes to the other sex peaked at age 5. Subjects overall were less sex-typed in their views of adults than peers.     

Investigating sex,masculinity and femininity in relation to impulsive driving and driving anger expression

Human factors constitute a class of prominent road safety related factors. In the present study, human factors of driving were studied by investigating sex differences and gender roles in relation to impulsive driving and driving anger expression. A total of 425 drivers between the ages of 18 and 56 (M = 25.46, SD = 7.58) participated to the study and completed a series of questionnaires including a demographic information form, the Bem Sex Roles Inventory, the Impulsive Driver Behaviour Scale and the Driving Anger Expression Inventory. According to the ANCOVA results, male drivers showed higher functional impulsivity, lack of premeditation and use of the vehicle to express anger than female drivers. Additionally, hierarchical regression analyses showed that masculinity was positively associated with functional impulsivity, urgency and the dimensions of aggressive anger expression. However, femininity was positively associated with functional impulsivity and adaptive/constructive anger expression, but negatively associated with the dimensions of dysfunctional impulsivity and aggressive anger expression. Overall, the results showed the significant solo effects of masculinity and femininity on impulsive driver behaviours and driving anger expression, over and above the effects of sex, and the interaction between sex and gender roles. In the present study, previously reported findings indicating the relationships between sex and gender roles and driving anger expression were supported and extended by providing the literature with the contribution of answering the question how sex and gender roles are related to impulsive driver behaviours. The findings of the two related concepts of impulsive driving and driving anger expression were discussed in light of the current literature. Contributions, implications and future research directions concerning road safety practices were presented.     

Equating the social desirability of Bem Sex-Role Inventory masculinity and femininity subscales

Two experiments investigated the social desirability of Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) items. Mean social desirability of the masculinity subscale was significantly higher than that of the femininity subscale in both experiments. A revision of the BSRI femininity subscale was suggested which replaced three items of questionable social value with three more socially desirable items and virtually eliminated the social desirability difference between masculinity and femininity subscales.