Analyzing distributional properties of interference effects across modalities: chances and challenges

In research investigating Stroop or Simon effects, data are typically analyzed at the level of mean response time (RT), with results showing faster responses for compatible than for incompatible trials. However, this analysis provides only limited information as it glosses over the shape of the RT distributions and how they may differ across tasks and experimental conditions. These limitations have encouraged the analysis of RT distributions using delta plots. In the present review, we aim to bring together research on distributional properties of auditory and visual interference effects. Extending previous reviews on distributional properties of the Simon effect, we additionally review studies reporting distributional analyses of Stroop effects. We show that distributional analyses of sequential effects (i.e., taking into account congruency of the previous trial) capture important similarities and differences of interference effects across tasks (Simon, Stroop) as well as across sensory modalities, despite some challenges associated to this approach.     

Sequential task predictability in task switching

Many studies of task switching have found that a prolonged preparation time reduces switch costs. An alternative manipulation of task preparation is based on sequential task predictability, rather than preparation time. In Experiments 1 and 2 of the present study, participants performed explicitly instructed task sequences (i.e., AABB) and were then transferred to a random sequence. The observed benefit of predictability-based task preparation was not switch specific. In Experiment 3, the participants changed from random to predictable tasks. The observed predictability benefit again was not switch specific. The data thus suggest that task switching does not necessarily require a switch-specific reconfiguration process. Rather, task-specific control processes may be needed in both task switches and repetitions.     

Preference between onset predictable and unpredictable administrations of 20% carbon-dioxide-enriched air: implications for better understanding the etiology and treatment of panic disorder

Predictability of aversive events impacts the development and maintenance of anxiety, particularly panic disorder. Although animal studies typically have found a preference for signaled (predictable) over unsignaled (unpredictable) aversive events, results of research with human participants have been less clear. Using a panic-relevant paradigm, the authors examined predictability preference with humans as a function of anxiety sensitivity and gender during repeated administrations of 20% carbon-dioxide-enriched air. Participants preferred predictable administrations, with high-anxiety individuals showing greater preference than low-anxiety individuals and women showing greater preference than men. In addition to providing information to better understand human predictability preference for panic-related events, results also may aid in determining the applicability of predictability to the cognitive-behavioral treatment of panic disorder.     

The effect of lexical predictability on distributions of eye fixation durations

A word's predictability in context has a well-established effect on fixation durations in reading. To investigate how this effect is manifested in distributional terms, an experiment was carried out in which subjects read each of 50 target words twice, once in a high-predictability context and once in a low-predictability context. The ex-Gaussian distribution was fit to each subject's first-fixation durations and single-fixation durations. For both measures, the μ parameter increased when a word was unpredictable, while the τ parameter was not significantly affected, indicating that a predictability manipulation shifts the distribution of fixation durations but does not affect the degree of skew. Vincentile plots showed that the mean ex-Gaussian parameters described the typical distribution shapes extremely well. These results suggest that the predictability and frequency effects are functionally distinct, since a frequency manipulation has been shown to influence both μ and τ. The results may also be seen as consistent with the finding from single-word recognition paradigms that semantic priming affects only μ.     

Instruction effects in task switching

The present study examined the effect of instructions on sequential task preparation using a cuing paradigm with three tasks. All task transitions were predictable, whereas task identity was unpredictable in switches but predictable in repetitions. In Experiment 1, predictability (predictable vs. random) was manipulated while preparation time (i.e., the cue-stimulus interval, or CSI) remained constantly short. In Experiment 2, CSI was manipulated for predictable task transitions. Both experiments showed clear instruction effects, but these were restricted to predictable task repetitions, for which predictability determined the identity of the upcoming task. Predictability effects were small in task switches and were not modulated by instruction, suggesting that preparation is mainly task-specific rather than switch-specific. Together, these results suggest that intentional processes contribute to predictability benefits in task repetitions, probably by enhancing the monitoring of sequential transitions in working memory in order to maintain activation in task repetitions.     

Application of the Generalized Matching Law for Description of Student Behavior in the Classroom

Matching law and theory have applied implications for classroom instruction and student behavior. The Generalized Matching Law (GML) is examined in this exploratory study to assess its utility for quantitatively describing student behavior in the classroom. Data were collected using computer-based observational software. Time-lag sequential analysis was used to identify specific teacher behaviors following specific student behaviors as estimates of reinforcement. Derived rates of student and teacher behaviors were analyzed in a linear regression of the natural logarithmic form of the GML. On average, the GML described over 70% of the variance in two students' behavior in a first-grade regular education classroom. Discussion addresses the potential utility of the GML for observation and intervention in the classroom.     

中文阅读中词汇加工的年老化:眼动证据

本研究探讨年老化影响中文阅读中词汇加工过程的特点,包含两项实验。实验一探讨老年与青年读者在词频效应上的差异,实验二探讨老年与青年读者在语境预测性效应上的差异。结果发现：（1）相对于青年读者,老年读者注视目标词汇的时间较长、再注视回视较多、跳读较少;（2）在首次注视时间、凝视时间和眼跳参数上,年龄组别与词频之间交互作用不显著,但对目标词汇的总注视时间上,年龄组别与词频之间交互作用显著;（3）在所有注视时间指标和回视概率上,均发现年龄组别与语境预测性影响之间交互作用显著。结论：中文老年读者阅读时的词汇加工效率低于青年人;中文阅读中眼跳策略与词汇加工的年老化模式有语言特殊性特点。     

Classroom Climate and Political Learning: Findings from a Swedish Panel Study and Comparative Data

Numerous studies have shown that an open classroom climate for discussion increases students' civic knowledge. However, most previous studies draw on cross‐sectional data and have not been able to show that the effect is causal. This article presents results from a Swedish panel survey following students during the first year in the gymnasium (upper secondary level). Using this study, we are better equipped to evaluate the link between an open classroom climate and political knowledge. Results suggest that the effect is causal. A 10% increase in open classroom climate is associated with about 5 percentage points higher knowledge. The beneficial effect of an open classroom climate is an important insight that should be seriously considered not only by researchers but also by educational policy makers, school managements, and teachers.     

Considerations for classroom seating arrangements and the role of teacher characteristics and beliefs

As a part of classroom management, teachers face the question of how and where to seat their students. However, it is far from clear what considerations teachers have when making seating arrangements. Therefore, in this study seating arrangement considerations from 50 teachers in grades 4–6 of elementary school were assessed. In Phase 1, teachers were interviewed about their goals and considerations for classroom seating arrangements. Teachers mentioned between 2 and 19 reasons for placing students at specific places in the classroom, with mostly academic considerations. They mainly preferred arrangements in small groups to promote student cooperation. In Phase 2, teachers completed a questionnaire about seating arrangements. This allowed us to examine individual differences between teachers related to gender, years of experience, and beliefs, and the concurrence between the interview and questionnaire data. Teachers reported multiple and various considerations for seating arrangements. Correlations with their general student-oriented or subject-oriented beliefs and personal characteristics were low. The concurrence between measurement methods also was low. The discussion focused on teacher awareness of classroom seating arrangements as an important part of classroom management and a tool for prevention and intervention.     

A sequential analysis of classroom discourse in Italian primary schools: The many faces of the IRF pattern

Background. A sequential analysis of classroom discourse is needed to investigate the conditions under which the triadic initiation‐response‐feedback (IRF) pattern may host different teaching orientations. Aim. The purpose of the study is twofold: first, to describe the characteristics of classroom discourse and, second, to identify and explore the different interactive sequences that can be captured with a sequential statistical analysis. Method. Twelve whole‐class activities were video recorded in three Italian primary schools. We observed classroom interaction as it occurs naturally on an everyday basis. In total, we collected 587 min of video recordings. Subsequently, 828 triadic IRF patterns were extracted from this material and analysed with the programme Generalized Sequential Query (GSEQ). Results. The results indicate that classroom discourse may unfold in different ways. In particular, we identified and described four types of sequences. Dialogic sequences were triggered by authentic questions, and continued through further relaunches. Monologic sequences were directed to fulfil the teachers' pre‐determined didactic purposes. Co‐constructive sequences fostered deduction, reasoning, and thinking. Scaffolding sequences helped and sustained children with difficulties. Conclusions. The application of sequential analyses allowed us to show that interactive sequences may account for a variety of meanings, thus making a significant contribution to the literature and research practice in classroom discourse.     

Psychoactive drug effects in a hyperactive child: A case study analysis of behavior change and teacher attention

The effects of methylphenidate on the behavior and teacher interactions of a 9-year-old hyperactive female were analyzed. Observations of the subject's task-related and disruptive behaviors and of interactions between the subject and her classroom teacher were made when the subject received the active drug and an inert placebo. Teacher's ratings of the subject's classroom behavior and measures of her academic performance were also obtained. Results showed that when the subject was receiving methylphenidate she engaged in task-related activities a greater percent of the time, had a higher percent of teacher interactions that were instructional in quality, and received lower behavior ratings by the teacher than when she was receiving a placebo. The results suggest that the use of medication may enable the hyperactive child to profit both behaviorally and academically.     

Sequential Patterning in Family Interaction: A Methodological Note

Participation rates have traditionally been used to indicate certain aspects of family and group structure. A recently reported indicator is the predictability of sequences of speakers in ongoing interaction; investigators have assumed that the greater the predictability the greater the rigidity, organization or structure of the group. We have examined one method, reported by Haley, for analyzing participation sequences and have shown that findings from the sequential analysis mix the effects of aggregate participation rates with the clustering of participation in time. We suggest an alternate method for measuring the predictability of sequences of speeches that can be more clearly interpreted and that, in combination with other measures, can provide findings which are more complex and more directly relevant to theories of family organization.     

Shaw’s stored information as a quantitative measure of sequential structure

In this paper, we describe a method to study the sequential structure in interevent times. The technique uses the stored information of an iterative map developed by-Shaw (1984). The stored information is a quantitative measure of the sequential organization or predictability in data. This paper discusses the concept of stored information and provides a FORTRAN routineto compute the stored information of interevent time data. Several synthetic data sets with known sequential structures are examined. Finally, we present some initial results from computing the stored information of experimental interresponse time data.     

A demonstration of undergraduate students' first impressions and their ratings of pathology

An interactive team exercise based in the dual topic areas of social and abnormal psychology is described that employs videotaped case studies to sensitize students to the processes by which they form first impressions of other people, and to various issues regarding assessments of mental disorders. Each of three case studies is presented in two parts: Part I simulates a "first impression" condition--involving students' ratings of perceived pathology--by briefly showing only a patient (no soundtrack present), and Part 2 constitutes a "further disclosure" condition by giving more exposure-involving therapists' diagnoses and assessments-of the same patient with both sight and soundtrack presented. Data are reported from 12 introductory psychology classes in which students (N=367) rated the three patients on psychopathology as perceived severity of disorder as compared to the actual assessments (also contained on the videotapes) made by clinical psychologists and psychiatrists. The demonstration is useful in eliciting consistent and predictable first impressions from students, in stimulating classroom discussion about the value and accuracy of person perceptions and first impressions, and in alerting students to problems related to the identification of mental disorders.     

Sex Differences in Expressive Thought of Gifted Children in the Classroom

This study was a comparison of 92 high-achieving gifted girls with 97 high-achieving gifted boys on measures of cognitive thinking, classroom expressiveness, self-concept, and attitudes. These secondary school boys were significantly more expressive than the girls on all classroom variables. Written tests of similar abilities revealed no differences except that the girls were better at giving solutions to hypothetical problems. Differences found in self-concept and attitudes of the present sample supported the conclusions drawn by Kagan that intellectual aggressiveness is seen, in part, as a masculine counterpart and that this type of behavior when visible, as in the classroom discussion, may well raise anxiety and inhibit the gifted girl from full expression. The part played by sex-role expectations in inhibiting the free expression of intellectual power of girls in academic settings and later life would seem to warrant much further investigation. The expressive range of performance within sex groups also represents an important area for investigation.     

Increasing participation and improving the quality of discussions in seventh-grade social studies classes

An experiment was conducted to evaluate procedures to improve classroom discussions in seventh-grade social studies classes. An increased number of students participated in discussions when rules were stated for discussions, students were praised for their contributions, the teacher restated or paraphrased students' contributions aloud or on the blackboard, the teacher planned an outline of discussion questions, student contributions to discussions were recorded and were used to determine part of the students' grades for the class, and discussion grades were publicly posted.The second part of the study focused on procedures designed to improve quality of classroom discussions. Students were taught to participate in discussions by providing reasons for their statements, comparisons between different points, or examples supporting their statements. As each type of contribution was taught, recorded, and counted toward part of the students' classroom grades, each type of contribution increased. Ratings of discussions by outside judges consisting of junior high school teachers, junior high school students, and persons experienced in conducting discussions, indicated that the training increased the overall quality of the discussions. Use of the quality training procedures, however, resulted in decreased levels of overall participation in discussion, a decrease that was reversed by the use of a group contingency for participation. Finally, the discussions after training seemed to be preferred by both the teacher and the students.     

Rules, praise, and ignoring: elements of elementary classroom control

An attempt was made to vary systematically the behavior of two elementary school teachers to determine the effects on classroom behavior of Rules, Ignoring Inappropriate Behaviors, and showing Approval for Appropriate Behavior. Behaviors of two children in one class and one child in the other class were recorded by observers, as were samples of the teachers' behavior. Following baseline recordings, Rules, Ignoring, and Approval conditions were introduced one at a time. In one class a reversal of conditions was carried out. The main conclusions were that: (a) Rules alone exerted little effect on classroom behavior, (b) Ignoring Inappropriate Behavior and showing Approval for Appropriate Behavior (in combination) were very effective in achieving better classroom behavior, and (c) showing Approval for Appropriate Behaviors is probably the key to effective classroom management.     

Policy conflict, policy consistency, and interpersonal understanding

Abstract.— A number of studies have shown that inconsistency in the subjects' policies is a major reason for disagreement in policy conflict. It has been hypothesized that the lack of consistency makes it hard for subjects to understand each other's policies. The present results provided evidence for this hypothesis by showing that subjects asked each other more questions about policy when their policies were less consistent in an experiment where policy consistency was manipulated by varying the predictability of the conflict task.     

The Effects of Discussion on Eyewitness Memory1

This study investigated the effects of witness discussion on the accuracy of recall and misidentifications in eyewitness memory. Dyadic groups who discussed the crime and dyads who made joint memorial decisions about the incident were more accurate in recall than were dyads who discussed noncriminal matters, and a no-discussion group. Collaborative dyads giving joint decisions also were significantly more accurate than were the other groups in rejection of the culprit-absent lineup. The sequential lineup method proved superior to the simultaneous method, regardless of whether or not witnesses discussed the crime prior to identification. It was concluded that discussion and joint decision making by 2 eyewitnesses can improve both eyewitness recall and minimize false identifications in some circumstances.     

快慢读者利用语境信息的差异：加工深度的作用

通过主题扫描和阅读理解两种加工深度不同的任务,考察快慢读者预测性效应差异的来源及加工深度在其中发挥的作用。被试在两种任务情境下阅读分别包含高低预测性目标词的96个句子框架,记录其眼动轨迹。结果显示：预测性效应仅在阅读理解任务中出现,快速读者在早期眼动指标上就表现出了预测性效应,慢速读者在晚期眼动指标上才表现出预测性效应。结果表明：加工深度调节快慢读者预测性效应的大小;在自然阅读情境下快慢读者的预测性效应表现符合预测编码框架假设。