MMPI-2 validity scales in child custody evaluations: clinical versus statistical significance

The MMPI-2 is commonly used in the psychological assessment of parents within child custody evaluations. Due to the interface of mental health practitioners with non-mental-health professionals in the context of child custody cases, careful attention must be paid to the potential misunderstanding or misuse of data from psychological testing. While traditional clinical lore has maintained an expectation of clinically significant defensiveness on the MMPI-2 with this population, the research data does not support this view. Despite empirical findings that identify patterns of elevations on the MMPI-2 validity scales with parents involved in child custody disputes, these patterns have been demonstrated to reach statistical but not clinical significance. That is, MMPI-2 profiles that contain elevations on scales L or K that either invalidate or notably suppress clinical scales are not to be expected in the child custody population. False causal attributions contributing to the potential mischaracterization or loss of important data related to personality functioning within this population are identified and discussed. Potential dangers associated with such false causal attributions are reviewed.     

Mothers' and Fathers' Gender-Role Characteristics: The Assignment of Postdivorce Child Care and Custody

Adults (151 female, 130 male; 17.4% African American/Black, 48% Caucasian, 22.8% Latino/Hispanic, 11.7% “other”) assigned postdivorce parental care and custody for four combinations of traditional/nontraditional mothers and fathers described in vignettes of divorcing parents. Parental gender characteristics influenced the assignment of parental care and child custody to divorcing mothers and fathers described in the scenarios and interacted with child gender. Across scenarios, female participants assigned more parental care and custody to mothers than did male participants. When feminine qualities were paired with masculine qualities, greater custody was assigned to the parent described with feminine characteristics (whether a father or mother) than when that parent was described with masculine characteristics. The role of feminine gender characteristics for child custody and care was discussed with regard to maternal primacy and possible changes for father involvement in the aftermath of divorce.     

MMPI-2 L + K and L + K - F indexes of underreporting: normative and desirable responding

Norms based on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) normative sample are provided for the L + K and L + K - F indexes of underreporting and defensiveness. Index scores produced by consistently desirable responding, which was guided by desirability ratings of the MMPI-2 items, also are provided and compared with scores produced by underreporting in other studies. The indexes correlate highly with other measures of underreporting in both normative and clinical samples. The L and K scales assess different types of underreporting and should be interpreted separately as well as in combination. The L scale can be elevated by undesirable responding or random responding in addition to desirable responding.     

Gender stereotypes underlie child custody decisions

Using hypothetical divorce cases we examine the role of gender stereotypes in decisions about child custody. Good mothers received greater custody allocations than did good fathers across a tightly matched pair of vignettes in three culturally distinct samples: Argentina, Brazil, and the United States (Study 1). Two follow-up studies indicated that the warmth dimension of stereotype content partly accounted for the asymmetry in custody awards: The proportion of maternal-primary custody was predicted by the tendency to ascribe warmth-related traits—such as friendliness, generosity, or trustworthiness—to mothers (Study 2) and associate them with female over male nouns (Study 3). We also found that endorsing shared custody mitigated the asymmetry in custody awards documented in our studies. Together, these results highlight the interplay of stereotyped attitudes and egalitarian commitments in the context of judicial decisions about child custody.     

MMPI-2 and MCMI-III characteristics of parental competency examinees

The MMPI-2 (Butcher et al., 2001) and the MCMI-III (Millon, Davis, & Millon, 1997) may contribute to understanding psychological functioning in parental competency examinees. In this study, we sought to identify MMPI-2 and MCMI-III characteristics of this population. We collected data regarding 127 individuals who underwent court-ordered parental competency evaluations. Although test results were generally consistent with findings from the child custody literature, MMPI-2 results indicated the highest Validity scale elevation on the L scale in contrast to the K scale elevations that have often been reported in the custody literature.     

MMPI-2-RF characteristics of custody evaluation litigants

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) is a 338-item objective self-report measure drawn from the 567 items of the MMPI-2. Although there is a substantial MMPI-2 literature regarding child custody litigants, there has been only one previously published study using MMPI-2-RF data in this population that focused on Validity scales L-r and K-r. The current study evaluated the MMPI-2-RF results of 344 child custody litigants and showed substantial consistency between T-score elevations typically found on MMPI-2 Validity scales L and K, and comparable elevations for MMPI-2-RF validity scales L-r and K-r. Mean T-scores well within normal limits characterized results for clinical scales on both instruments. The RC scale intercorrelation patterns, and alpha coefficient values found for MMPI-2-RF scales in a custody population, were also found to be very similar to those reported for other populations. Directions for future research are presented.     

Matching adolescents with foster mothers and fathers: An evaluation of the role of temperament

We tested the notion that better foster care adjustment would be observed when the temperaments of mothers and fathers were matched with those of adolescent foster children. We hypothesized that families in which foster parents and foster children had high (easy) scores on subscales of the Revised Dimensions of Temperament Scale (DOTS-R) would also report higher family functioning and higher foster care adjustment than parents and children from families in which one or both family members had low (difficult) scores on these scales. The hypotheses were supported when the mothers and fathers family assessments were used but rejected when the observations of the case managers and adolescents were tested. Methodological and substantive explanations for the findings are discussed and recommendation for foster care practice and continuing research are provided.     

Validity of the parenting scale for parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The present study examined the validity of the parenting scale for parents of elementary school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Parents from 109 families with children who had been diagnosed with ADHD (106 mothers and 93 fathers) and from 70 families with non-problem children (69 mothers and 59 fathers) completed the parenting scale and reported on their children's behavior problems. Factor analyses revealed two interpretable factors for both mothers and fathers, corresponding to the overreactivity and laxness factors identified in previous studies of the parenting scale. Overreactivity and laxness scores were significantly higher for mothers and fathers of ADHD children than of non-ADHD children; this effect appeared to be accounted for by comorbid aggression and conduct problems among ADHD children. Results support the validity of the parenting scale for use with parents of ADHD children.     

Parents’ Reports of Children’s Internalizing Symptoms: Associations with Parents’ Mental Health Symptoms and Substance Use Disorder

This brief report examined the unique associations between parents’ ratings of child internalizing symptoms and their own depression and anxiety in families with parental substance use disorder (SUD). Further, we examined whether parental SUD (father only, mother only, both parents) was related to discrepancy in mothers’ and fathers’ reports of children’s internalizing symptoms. Participants were 97 triads (fathers, mothers) in which one or both parents met criteria for SUD. Polynomial regression analyses were conducted to examine whether father-mother reports of child internalizing symptoms had unique associations with parents’ own symptoms of depression and anxiety while controlling for child gender, child age, and SUD diagnoses. Controlling for fathers’ symptoms and other covariates, mothers experiencing more depression and anxiety symptoms reported more symptoms of child internalizing symptoms than did fathers. Mothers’ and fathers’ SUD was associated with higher anxiety symptoms among mothers after controlling for other variables. A second set of polynomial regressions examined whether father-mother reports of child internalizing symptoms had unique associations with parents’ SUD diagnoses while controlling for child gender and child age. After controlling for mothers’ symptoms and other covariates, parents’ reports of children’s internalizing symptoms were not significantly associated with either parent’s SUD or parental SUD interactions (i.e., both parents have SUD diagnoses). Taken together, mothers’ ratings of children’s internalizing symptoms may be accounted for, in part, by her reports of depression and anxiety symptoms.     

Self-esteem and social desirability in relation to college students' retrospective perceptions of parental fairness and disciplinary practices

This study examined the relationships that fathers' and mothers' interactive of disciplinary behaviors have with college students' Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory scores, Social Desirability scale scores, and their retrospective perceptions of their parents' fairness (50 sons, 84 daughters). Sons with higher scores in self-esteem reported that their mothers were fairer, had more interest in their activities, and were less likely to use verbal put-downs (abuse). Daughters with high self-esteem reported both of their parents were more interested in their activities, used praise more often, and refrained from verbal abuse. Also, these daughters reported that their mothers were more fair and encouraged their independence more. Daughters who reported their fathers as being more strict had lower self-esteem scores. There was no evidence that spanking, grounding, scolding, or monetary rewards had any effect on children's self-esteem scores, whether these methods were used by mothers or by fathers. Both sons and daughters who perceived their parents as being more fair also saw them as being more interested, having used praise more often, and having been less likely to have used verbal abuse. Daughters were less likely to view either fathers or mothers as being more fair if they had used spanking, grounding, or scolding more, and had been over-all stricter. Sons who had less strict fathers or who had received monetary rewards from them tended to regard them as being more fair. Higher social desirability scores correlated with higher self-esteem of women. Also, women with these higher social desirability scores tended to report that both their fathers and mothers used scolding and grounding less often.     

Evading detection on the MMPI-2: does caution produce more realistic patterns of responding?

Studies on MMPI and MMPI-2 malingering indexes often sacrifice generalizability in an attempt to control internal validity. This study improves external validity while still maintaining internal validity by providing graduate student participants with a realistic context for malingering on the MMPI-2 (n=94) and MMPI (n=30). Contextual parameters include a realistic life predicament, psychological knowledge, an incentive, the presence versus absence of a specific diagnosis, and a caution to be realistic. This study found that cautioning participants not to overexaggerate their responses significantly improves their ability to evade detection on the MMPI-2 and MMPI. Standard malingering indexes (Infrequency, F; Back Side, F, Fb; F-Correction, F-K; and Infrequency-Psychopathology, F(p)) were insufficiently sensitive in identifying simulators using common cutoff scores for these cautious simulators.     

Predicting parenting behaviors from Antisocial Practices content scale scores of the MMPI-2 administered during pregnancy

This article examines the relation between scores on the Antisocial Practices (ASP) content scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) and parenting behaviors in a sample of low-income women. During pregnancy, 141 women were administered the MMPI-2 and then placed into 1 of 3 groups: an antisocial, nonclinical, or clinical control group. When their children were 13 and 24 months old, antisocial mothers were observed to be less understanding and more hostile and harsh in their parenting styles than mothers in the other groups. The nonclinical and clinical control groups did not differ on any measures. Other MMPI-2 measures of antisocial behavior were not predictive of harsh parenting styles. These findings support the predictive and construct validity of the ASP content scale of the MMPI-2.     

The Effects of Parental Depressive Symptoms,Appraisals, and Physical Punishment on Later Child Externalizing Behavior

Examined a cognitive-behavioral pathway by which depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers increase risk for later child externalizing problem behavior via parents’ appraisals of child behavior and physical discipline. Participants were 245 children (118 girls) at risk for school-age conduct problems, and their parents and teachers. Children were approximately 3 years old at Time 1 (T1) and 5 ½ years old at Time 2 (T2). At T1, mothers and fathers reported their depressive symptoms, perceptions of their child’s reciprocal affection and responsiveness, frequency of physical punishment, and child externalizing problems. Mothers, fathers, and teachers provided ratings of externalizing behavior at T2. Structural equation modeling revealed that parents’ negative attributions mediated positive relations between their depressive symptoms and frequency of physical punishment for both fathers and mothers. More frequent physical punishment, in turn, predicted increased child externalizing behavior at T2. In future research, transactional mechanisms underlying effects of clinical depression on child conduct problems should be explored at multiple stages of development. For parents showing depressive symptoms, restructuring distorted perceptions about their children’s behavior may be an important component of intervention programs.     

Do early parental postnatal depression,attachment style and perceived social support affect neurodevelopmental outcomes of premature infants?

BackgroundThe birth of a premature infant is both a stressful event for both parents and associated with an increased rate of postnatal depression (PND). Additionally some mothers may have delayed feelings of attachment to their babies because of the medical procedures or possible medical complications. Social support is known as an important factor for well-being in the postnatal period. However there is scarce data about these factors for fathers. We aimed to identify the impact of parental PND, attachment style and social support on premature infant development considering the prematurity degree and risk groups.MethodsThis prospective study was conducted by including 96 infants who were born preterm. Mothers and fathers were given Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), Adult Attachment Style Scale (AASS), and Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) to fill out when their infants’ corrected age was 3 months. The developmental evaluation was conducted with Bayley III at the corrected 6 months and 18 months of age.ResultsPostnatal depression scores were more in mothers than fathers, the rates of secure attachment and social support were similar between mothers and fathers. Factors associated with the neurodevelopmental outcomes including prematurity degree and risk groups, EPDS, AASS and MSPSS scores were analyzed for both parents. In multivariate analysis, fathers’ depression scores were inversely associated with cognitive development (p = 0.030, R² = 0.080, B=-0.283) and mothers’ anxious/ambivalent attachment style was inversely associated with language development (p = 0.011, R² = 0.108, B=-0.329) at the age of corrected 6 months old.ConclusionsOur findings underscore that the efforts to improve developmental outcomes of premature infants should include parental well-being taking into account new fathers’ depressive symptomatology and maternal anxious/ambivalent attachment.     

Mothers and fathers of young children: comparison of parenting styles

This study compared the developmental expectations and parenting behaviors of 52 mothers and fathers with children between the ages of 1 and 4 years, using the Parenting Inventory: Young Children. While both mothers and fathers were nurturing parents, mothers obtained significantly higher nurturing scores. Possible reasons for this difference were discussed. Developmental expectations and discipline strategies did not differ between mothers and fathers.     

Association of fake-good MMPI-2 profiles with low Beck Depression Inventory scores

Seventy-nine adolescent mothers (mean age = 18.1 years) were administered the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and three validity scales (L, F, and K) of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 (MMPI-2). The aim was to determine whether low-BDI mothers were "faking good," or denying their depression. The adolescent mothers were assigned to a low-BDI group (scores = 0, 1, 2), a nondepressed group (scores = 3-9), or a depressed group (scores > or = 13). The depressed group had higher F (Symptom) scale scores than did the nondepressed group, which in turn had higher scores than did the low-BDI group. The low-BDI group, in contrast, had more fake-good profiles than did the two other groups. Discriminant analyses indicated that 90% of the fake-good profiles could be classified correctly based on BDI and K (Defensiveness) scale scores. These data suggest the need for further assessment when individuals have extremely low BDI scores.     

Fear of Hypoglycemia in Parents of Young Children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

The current study examined fear of hypoglycemia in 81 mothers and 64 fathers of young children with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) using the Hypoglycemia Fear Survey-Parents of Young Children (HFS-P-YC possible range = 26–130). Mothers and fathers completed the HFS-P-YC at enrollment and mothers completed it 2 weeks later. Families recorded daily blood glucose on a standardized meter for 2 weeks. Mothers’ mean total HFS-P-YC score was 75.0 (SD = 17.2) and fathers’ mean score was 66.5 (SD = 18.0). Mothers reported greater HFS-P-YC total and behavior subscale scores than fathers. Mothers’ HFS-P-YC scores were comparable to published HFS scores for mothers of preadolescents with T1DM and higher than adult patients with T1DM. The HFS-P-YC had good internal consistency and test–retest reliability in this sample. These findings suggest parents of young children with T1DM report a high level of fear of hypoglycemia. Additionally, the HFS-P-YC appears to be a reliable measure in this population.     

FATHER–CHILD PLAY DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS AND CHILD INTERNALIZING BEHAVIORS: BETWEEN ROBUSTNESS AND VULNERABILITY

Play observations with a total of 400 toddlers and preschoolers were videotaped and rated for Intensity and Quality of play with their parents. Parents were asked about perceived stress and personality characteristics (Big 5). Child's motor, cognitive skills, temperament, and internalizing behaviors were assessed. Study 1 investigated the robustness of play across child age and gender, and examined differences between fathers and mothers. Study 2 explored the vulnerability of play with fathers of children born preterm (PT‐fathers) and fathers who had experienced adverse childhoods (AC‐fathers). Study 3 investigated child internalizing behaviors. Intensity of play was maintained almost independently of child age and gender. It was similar for AC‐ and PT‐fathers, and similar to maternal Intensity. In contrast, paternal Quality of play was higher with boys and independent of fathers’ personality and perceived parenting stress whereas maternal Quality of play was higher with girls and linked to mothers’ perceived parenting competence, acceptability of the child, and neuroticism. AC‐fathers scored significantly low on Quality, as did PT‐fathers, but the Quality of their play became better with growing child age, birth weight, and cognitive (but not motor and temperament) scores. Finally, child internalizing behaviors were negatively related to paternal Quality of play.     

Do Mothers and Fathers Perceive Their Child’s Problems and Prosocial Behaviors Differently?

The aim of this study was to compare mothers’ and fathers’ ratings of their young children’s problems and prosocial behaviors using the Korean version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Furthermore, the present study examined whether parental depressive symptoms were linked to agreement between mothers’ and fathers’ ratings of their young children’s behavior. The sample consisted of 302 parents whose 5-year-old children attended childcare centers in Korea. The parents completed the Korean version of the SDQ and the Center for the Epidemiological Studies of Depression short form. The results revealed that both the mothers’ and fathers’ reports moderately correlated for both boys and girls, with greater correlations for externalizing problems than for internalizing problems. Whereas there were no significant differences between mothers’ and fathers’ reports of their children’s problems, mothers reported significantly more prosocial behaviors than fathers did, regardless of the child’s gender. Polynomial regression showed that mothers’ reports were more strongly associated with fathers’ report of their children’s prosocial behavior when mothers reported lower levels of depressive symptoms. The findings provide empirical evidence that mothers and fathers reported more similarities than differences in assessing child problems. Further analyses suggest considering maternal depressive symptoms when interpreting interparental agreement on their children’s prosocial behaviors.