Changes in the Family System and in Its Beliefs About Control,Trust, and Vulnerability Related to Economic Extortive Kidnapping

Abstract

This article reports some results of a study on the effects of economic extortive kidnapping (EEK) on the family system, and on family beliefs about control over one's life, trust in others, and vulnerability to kidnapping. Eighteen families having one of their relatives in captivity and 54 who had their relative released were interviewed. During captivity, family communication and affective involvement improved. However, the negotiation made family relationships more prone to conflict. After release, family relationships became more empathetic; family communication and affective involvement improved, but the loss of trust in their surroundings and the fear of becoming victims again, led families to feel safe only in their own home and to perceive social context as threatening.     

Role of parental emotional support in illusion of scholastic incompetence

IntroductionSelf-perceptions of competence are involved in motivational processes explaining that although pupils’ capacities are comparable, their academic achievement differs greatly. In general, pupils with an illusion of scholastic incompetence exhibit a set of negative characteristics concerning their academic functioning.ObjectiveThis article seeks to better understand the links between emotional support from parents and children's under-evaluation of their own scholastic competence.MethodSelf-reports from 626 pupils in Grades 4 and 5 (mean age: 10 years, 8 months) and one of their parents were analysed.ResultsPupils with an illusion of incompetence perceive the emotional support provided by their parents as less available and less unconditional. This difference is not echoed in their parents’ own report of the emotional support they think they give their child. However, parents of children with an illusion of incompetence do report reacting to their children's actions with criticism and disapproval more often than other parents.ConclusionThe quality of parental emotional support as perceived by the children predicts the bias they have when evaluating their own scholastic competence. Their parents’ perception also predicts this bias, albeit more modestly.     

The child abusing family: I. Methodological issues and parent-related characteristics of abusing families

Abstract

The physical abuse of children by their parents is a family matter and should be viewed within the context of the family unit. Unfortunately, few child abuse studies have directly examined the family unit. Rather, most studies focus on characteristics of individual members of abusing families or on dyadic relationships within abusing families. Therefore, the present paper examines the family-related variables that might contribute to child abuse. This review is divided into two parts. Part I discusses methodological considerations and parent-related aspects of abusing families, including: characteristics of abusing parents, childhood experiences of abusing parents, marital relationships of abusing parents and the perceptions and expectations that abusing parents have of their abused children. Part II of this review, which will appear in a later issue, will cover child-related aspects of abusing families, parent-child interactions in these families, environmental conditions associated with child abuse and typologies of abusing families.     

Couple Crises and the Trigenerational Family

ABSTRACT

A trigenerational approach to couple crises is presented. Key ideas are developed from the work of Bowen, Framo and Whitaker on families of origin; Bowen sends partners back to their own families; Framo invites the extended family into the session with the couple; Whitaker enlarges the unit of observation to include more family members, increasing family resources. For the author, the early phase of therapy is diagnostic, so extended family members are invited to provide information as consultants. One couple'S crisis is reviewed m detail. Issues arising from inviting the couple'S parents and siblings, their children, and the value of individual sessions for the partners are examined using the trigenerational framework.     

Mothers', fathers' and children's perceptions of parents' expectations about children's family obligations in nine countries

Children's family obligations involve assistance and respect that children are expected to provide to immediate and extended family members and reflect beliefs related to family life that may differ across cultural groups. Mothers, fathers and children (N = 1432 families) in 13 cultural groups in 9 countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand and United States) reported on their expectations regarding children's family obligations and parenting attitudes and behaviours. Within families, mothers and fathers had more concordant expectations regarding children's family obligations than did parents and children. Parenting behaviours that were warmer, less neglectful and more controlling as well as parenting attitudes that were more authoritarian were related to higher expectations regarding children's family obligations between families within cultures as well as between cultures. These international findings advance understanding of children's family obligations by contextualising them both within families and across a number of diverse cultural groups in 9 countries.     

Revisiting an era in Germany from the perspective of adolescents in mother‐headed single‐parent families

Much of the documented work on families headed by single mothers is based on empirical evidence from North America and a few Anglo‐Saxon countries. Many researchers consider single‐mother families to be at a disadvantage because of nonsupportive family policies. This paper uses data from a social context that differed hugely in this respect—the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The GDR provided extensive state support to single‐mother families and, thus, was vastly different from other countries. Based on a literature review and using Hill's family stress theory, this paper is based on the hypothesis that adolescents living in mother‐headed single‐parent families and those living with their biological parents would have near‐similar social outcomes (display of psychosomatic symptoms, perception of stress, display of delinquent behaviour, life satisfaction, academic self‐efficacy, and academic grades) and family‐related outcomes (relationship with parents and perception of family environment). Further, it was hypothesized that adolescents from stepfather families would display more negative social and family‐related outcomes when compared with respondents from the other two family types. The sample comprised 1302 adolescents (M  =  13.82 years, SD  =  1.88) who were recruited from the city of Leipzig in the year immediately following German unification, 1991. Respondents reported on measures of psychosomatic symptoms, stress, delinquency, life satisfaction, academic achievement, and family‐related variables. ANCOVAs, with a control for income adjusted for household size, indicated adolescents from single‐mother families to have very similar experiences to respondents living with their biological parents on all measures except for their assessment of family environment. Adolescents living in stepfather families reported the least favourable experiences. Results are indicative of a social context in Germany that, despite unification and the early hardships for single‐mother families, still provided these families with more opportunities than constraints.     

The restraint scale: a psychometric investigation

The psychometric characteristics of the Restraint Scale in obese and normal-weight subjects were compared. Scores were significantly higher and more homogeneous in the obese than in the normal-weight group. In light of previous studies indicating that obese subjects behave like normal-weight subjects whose Restraint scores are several points (approx. 3–6) lower, the present result was interpreted as suggesting that numerically-equivalent scores may represent less restraint in obese individuals than in normal-weight people.The psychometric evaluation of the Restraint Scale also revealed that the scale was less reliable in the obese than in the normal-weight population and seemed to tap somewhat different constructs in the two subpopulations. Factor analyses yielded a two-dimensional solution in the normal-weight group and a four-dimensional solution in the obese group. Correlations of the scale with a measure of Defensiveness also differed in the two samples.These results indicate that the norms, reliability and construct validity of the scale differ for obese and normal-weight populations. If restraint theory's predictions concerning the relations between restraint and obesity are to be adequately tested these differences must be taken into account.     

Parenting and preschool child behaviour among Turkish immigrant,migrant and non-migrant families

When families migrate the new culture and culture of origin may conflict, with possible consequences for parenting and children's development. Turks form one of the largest immigrant groups in Western Europe, and there is also much movement within Turkey. This study compares three groups; Turkish immigrants to the UK (N = 142), migrants within Turkey (N = 229), and Turkish non-migrants (locals, N = 396). The children were 39–71 months old (M = 58 months, SD = 6.5), 392 were boys and 375 were girls. Parents supplied data on family characteristics and parenting, and teachers supplied data on children's behaviour. Using Baumrind's parenting model and allowing for background effects, compared to non-migrants and migrants, the immigrant parents were less permissive and more authoritarian. Children in immigrant families had more externalizing problems, internalizing problems and emotional dysregulation and less social competence than migrant and non-migrant children. Multilevel models and structural equation models both found that these effects upon child behaviour were evident after taking into account demographic factors and were not eliminated by taking into account parenting style differences, and thus suggest that immigration and migration are risk factors for child behaviour. Effects of immigrant and migrant status were partly direct and partly indirect via their effects on parenting.     

Family‐level coparenting processes and child gender as moderators of family stress and toddler adjustment

The goal of this multi‐method study was to examine how child gender and coparenting processes influence associations between family stress and toddlers' social adjustment. The participants, 104 dual‐earner couples and their 2‐year‐old children, were videotaped in their home during a freeplay activity. Mothers and fathers completed questionnaires about stress in their roles as partners, workers, and parents and their child's social–emotional adjustment. Consistent with previous research, higher levels of family stress were associated with poorer adjustment for children. Family harmony, represented by warmth and cooperation, was significantly associated with fewer internalizing problems for children even when family stress was considered. Conversely, coparental banter or ‘playful humour’ between parents moderated the nature of the association between family stress and children's adjustment. Banter between parents was especially protective for girls suggesting that, even in families with toddler‐aged children, gender plays an important role in family‐level coparenting processes. Future research needs to consider more fully the impact that child characteristics, such as gender, have on the interplay between the family context and children's development. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Parental meta-emotion structure predicts family and child outcomes

Abstract

Fifty-six families with a preschool child whose parents varied widely in parental marital satisfaction were studied at two time points: at time-I when the children were 5 years old and again at time-2 when the children were 8 years old. At time-1 each parent was separately interviewed about their “meta-emotion structure”, that is, their feelings about their own emotions, and their attitudes, and responses to their children's anger and sadness. Their behaviour during this interview was coded with a meta-emotion coding system. Two meta-emotion variables were studied for each parent, awareness of the parent's own sadness, and parental “coaching” of the child's anger. We termed the high end of these variables an “emotion coaching” (EC) meta-emotion structure. Meta-emotion structure was found to relate to time-1 marital and parent-child interaction. EC-type parents had marriages that were less hostile and they were less negative and more positive during parent-child interaction. Their children showed less evidence of physiological stress, greater ability to focus attention, and had less negative play with their best friends. At time-2 those children showed higher academic achievement in mathematics and reading had fewer behaviour problems, and were physically healthier than non-EC parents. The relations between child outcome and parental meta-emotion structure were not explained by social class variables, emotional expressiveness, or the greater happiness and stability of parents with an EC-type meta-emotion structure.     

A Review of: “Sperry,L., Carlson,J., & Peluso,P. R. (2006)”

Abstract

The study tested the relation between parents' differentiation and offspring's social anxiety, using a sample of university students and their parents to reflect family patterns across three generations. The main finding confirmed that parents' levels of differentiation (differentiation of self and family differentiation) and social anxiety were positively related to those of their offspring. This lends support to Bowen's (1978; Kerr & Bowen, 1988) contention of transmission of the family emotional process across generations. Moreover, students' social anxiety was found to be inversely related to their parents' levels of differentiation. The importance of addressing family issues in the treatment of individuals with problems related to social anxiety is indicated.     

Supporting families of transgender children/youth: Parents speak on their experiences,identity, and views

ABSTRACT

Background: Transgender children/youth demonstrate the best possibility for resilience and positive mental health when they are part of an affirming and supportive family. To optimize families in supporting transgender children/youth, parents/caregivers need to be supported. Transgender children/youth and their families regularly navigate a myriad of challenges through society.

Aims: Within the extant literature on transgender children and youth, relatively little attention is focused on the experiences of parents/caregivers and how their close family relationships are affected. The present qualitative study addresses this gap in knowledge through its exploration of the experiences, identities, and views of parents/caregivers of transgender children/youth.

Method: The study is longitudinal and this article represents the first wave. Fourteen parents of 12 transgender children/youth, aged 6–17, participated in in-depth semistructured interviews. Participants were recruited via social media and at an on-site conference for transgender youth and their families. All children/youth had socially transitioned. Those who were eligible for puberty suppression and/or hormone therapy were receiving those. The interviews were inductively coded for themes by two coders using the constant comparative method.

Results: Participants' reports on their experiences yielded three themes: (1) transgender issues as the family's focus; (2) proactivity, child-focused: preemptive actions to prevent adverse consequences; and (3) self-care. These themes included subthemes on effective coping strategies to mitigate struggles. Three themes related to participants' identity and views emerged: (1) identity reformation, (2) self-evaluation, and (3) views of future. These themes included subthemes that reflected how participants viewed themselves, their child, and the future.

Discussion: A transgender identity in one family member affects all household members. Parents/guardians may experience guilt and self-doubt over decisions. Factors that may improve outcomes with extended family and schools include families' preemptive dissemination of information on transgender identities and explicating expectations of respect and nonintrusion. Ingrained traditions may force life-altering decisions.     

Ecological Correlates of Family Functioning

Guided by ecological theory, we empirically explored how parents' psychological functioning, social relationships, and demographic characteristics related to family functioning. Our sample of 197 participants included both neglectful and control families. We found statistically significant associations between the predictor variables (i.e., maternal personal maturity, depression, stressful life events, social support, family of origin difficulties, education, income) and family functioning as rated by mothers, caseworkers familiar with the families, and observers who coded family interaction tasks. However, the exact pattern of significant associations differed as a function the rater of family health.     

Parental Perceptions of Child Development Among Low-Income Mexican American Families

Parents' perceptions of child development are influenced by complex interactions among cultural, social, and economic factors. Insights into how parents from culturally diverse societies perceive the development of their children might explain why different cultural groups foster or value the development of different skills in their children. In this study, we explored the perceptions of child development among low income Mexican American parents. A series of ethnographic interviews were conducted with eight Mexican American families who had preschool children. Qualitative data analyses yielded three main themes that were important to these parents: family attitudes and values, changes, and adaptations. For these parents, the development of social attributes in children, that will enable them to function within their own cultural group, was as important as the development of cognitive or motor skills. Service providers, such as school and mental health personnel, should take into account cultural differences in parents' perceptions of the importance of various developmental milestones for their children when suggesting interventions typically used by parents in the dominant culture.     

System functioning in families with ADHD and non-ADHD sons

Eighteen families with hyperactive 6- to 12-year-old sons and 19 families with normal 6- to 12-year-old sons were observed discussing childrearing concerns in mother-father-son triads. Parents also completed questionnaires assessing marital and parent-child relationships. Observational ratings indicated that the hyperactive sons misbehaved more and exhibited less adaptive and age-appropriate behavior than did the comparison sons. The parents' self-report data indicated that the parents of hyperactive sons spent more time discussing their sons' problems and blaming their sons for family problems relative to parents of comparison sons. The parents of hyperactive sons also reported that their sons' problems distracted them from other marital and family concerns more than did parents of comparison sons. Nevertheless, parents of hyperactive sons did not report greater marital satisfaction or a greater sense of being unified by their sons' problems. Consistent with previous findings, families of hyperactive sons also did not report or exhibit more marital conflict than did families of comparison sons. This discussion focuses on the usefulness of a systems approach for understanding the interdependence among relationships within families.     

Treatment Efficacy of Multiple Family Therapy for Chinese Families of Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

The treatment efficacy of multiple family therapy (MFT) for Chinese families of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has not been studied in the past. In this paper, the effect of MFT on different aspects of the lives of the parents in the experimental group (n = 61) was compared with the effect of only the psychoeducational talks on parents in the control group (n = 53). The results of a MANOVA have shown that by the time they reached the posttreatment phase, the parents who had completed the full 42 hours of the MFT program perceived their children's ADHD symptoms as being less serious and less pathological than they had originally thought compared to the parents in the control group. The effect of MFT on parent–child relationships, parenting stress, parental efficacy, hope, and perceived social support was statistically insignificant. Contributions and limitations of our study are discussed.     

Family Stress and Adjustment as Perceived by Parents of Children with Autism or Down Syndrome: Implications for Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study examined stress and adjustment in parents of three groups of families: those with an autistic child, those with a Down syndrome child, and those with only developmentally normal children. A total of 54 families participated, with 18 representing each group. Parents of autistic children generally reported more family stress and adjustment problems than parents of children with Down Syndrome who, in turn, reported more stress and adjustment problems than parents of developmentally normal children. Although parents of disabled children reported more stress associated with caring for their child, they generally showed resilience in adjusting to the presence of a severely disabled family member. Implications for family intervention are discussed.     

The influence of therapist experience upon evaluative perceptions of family members

Abstract

This study investigated the influence of experience in family therapy on therapists' evaluative perceptions of family members. Beginning students in family therapy, advanced students, and experienced staff rated members of 100 families according to the Semantic Differential technique. Contrary to expectations, beginning students did not evaluate identified patients more favorably than parents. Staff and advanced students, however, rated parents more favorably than identified patients. Beginning students were also found to evaluate all family members more favorably than staff and advanced students. These results were discussed in terms of experienced therapists initially taking the side of the parents and the effects this potential source of bias may have on the course of family therapy.     

Substitution with Interrupted Tasks of Differing Valence

The study was designed (a) to develop a form of the Home Life Scale for university men, an instrument which provides a measure of perceptions of their home life in their families of orientation; and (b) to examine the perceptions of university men in relation to selected background characteristics and to their attitudes concerning father-son relationships. No significant relationships were observed between (a) home life perceptions and (6) age, marital status, father's occupation and education, source of family income, and socioeconomic status of parents; nor were any significant relationships observed between (a) attitudes concerning father-son relationships and (b) age, marital status, father's occupation and education, source of family income, and socioeconomic status of parents. How-ever, a significant relationship (p = .05) was observed between home life perceptions and attitudes concerning father-son relationships, indicating that those Ss who hold negative perceptions concerning their families of orientation reflected the most permissive attitudes concerning father-son relationships. Such a finding suggests that men who view their own families of orientation unfavorably may wish to create in their families of procreation a warmer, less restrictive atmosphere.