AN AMERICAN NATURALIST ACCOUNT OF CULTURE

The basic tenets of “classical” naturalism (exemplified in the work of Mead, Buchler, and Randall, among others) are delineated and distinguished from other versions of naturalism. Classical naturalism is also distinguished from reductive materialism and idealism. Nature is asserted to be indefinitely plural and not amenable to monistic or dualistic categorial schemes; that is, the principle of “ontological parity” is maintained. The method of inquiry of naturalism is outlined, along with the notion of truth as perspectivally objective. The metaphysical hypotheses are then used to examine culture. Culture is found to be the specific environment of human being, arising out of, but irreducible to, other natural processes. Culture is described as the cumulative gestures of the human social organism as it discovers and creates itself in mutual constitution with other natural processes and products.     

AN ARISTOTELIAN ACCOUNT OF VIRTUE ETHICS: AN ESSAY IN MORAL TAXONOMY

Abstract:  I argue that a virtue ethics takes virtue to be more basic than rightness and at least as basic as goodness. My account is Aristotelian because it avoids the excessive inclusivity of Martha Nussbaum's account and the deficient inclusivity of Gary Watson's account. I defend the account against the objection that Aristotle does not have a virtue ethics by its lights, and conclude with some remarks on moral taxonomy.     

ORGANIZATIONS AS COMMUNICATION STRUCTURES: AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH1

This research has the limited objectives of exploring the similarity among several organizational communication and formal organizational structural variables, showing the dynamic nature of organizational structure when viewed in a communication perspective, and providing a way of viewing organizations in which the mechanisms used to aggregate initial building blocks to provide pictures of organizations are clear. Three organizations were mapped in communication terms. The results of the mappings were used to suggest directions for future research in organizational communication.     

COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING AND MENTAL CONTAMINATION: AN EMPIRICAL RE-CONCEPTUALIZATION

The main goal of this article is to propose a cognitive technology for blocking the impact of mental contamination during cognitive restructuring in cognitive-behavioral and rational-emotive therapy, by using fundamental research findings from cognitive psychology. In step 1, after a review of the relevant cognitive and social psychology literature, the authors elaborated several techniques hypothesized to control mental contamination. In step 2—Experiment I—the authors tested the efficacy of these techniques in blocking mental contamination. The three techniques that proved to be effective in controlling mental contamination were: (a) the global restructuring technique; (b) the rational anticipation technique; (c) the incompatible information technique. In step 3—Experiment II—these techniques were adapted and tested in clinical setting using a single case experiment design-multiple baselines across subjects (five subjects with simple phobia). The techniques were shown to be effective in both stimulating the assimilation of new adaptive cognitions (i.e., global restructuring and incompatible information technique) and in preventing relapse (i.e., rational anticipation technique). Future directions for research are discussed. Address correspondence to Daniel David, Ph.D., Department of Psychology and Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, Babes-Bolyai University, No. 37, Gh. Bilascu Street, 3400, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania; e-mail: danieldavid@psychology.ro.     

DYNAMICS OF CULTURAL IN-BETWEENITY: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY*

The Dialectical Theory of Cultural In-Betweenity proposes three main identification patterns among the black intelligentsia: Capitulation to the dominant culture, Revitalization of the indigenous culture, and Radicalization of both so as to arrive at a new and higher synthesis. Three scales corresponding to the identification patterns were constructed and a comparative study was conducted on two college samples. One group consisted of 45 Somali students being trained in the United States. The other group consisted of 57 Somali students being trained in Somalia. Specific hypotheses comparing the two groups were tested and mostly confirmed by means of various psychological instruments. Investigation into the component features of each identification pattern led to further refinement of the theory. Factor analytic explorations suggested the prevalence of distinct ethos, group reference, and self-image within each orientation. Capitalist ethos, elitism, and inferiority complex seem to be characteristic of Capitulation. Traditional ethos, race consciousness, and identity-rumination were delineated for Revitalization. Socialist ethos, class consciousness, and co-optation fears emerged as distinct components of Radicalization. The Dialectical Theory of Cultural In-Betweenity and the empirical findings are then discussed within the broad historical framework of colonialism and racism.     

AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF SELF-APPRAISAL-BASED PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

This study investigated the effectiveness of a self-appraisal-based performance evaluation system (SABPE) that incorporates self-assessment into traditional supervisory evaluation procedures. Its subject sample consisted of 88 faculty members and their chairpersons at a land-grant state university. Results indicated that (1) there was high congruency between self- and chairperson ratings, (2) both ratings had moderate to high levels of criterion-related validity, and (3) both faculty members and chairpersons reported high SABPE acceptance. The implications of these results for future self-appraisal research are discussed.     

员工自我调节学习的实证研究

本研究以沿海和中原地区的国有、合资和私营企业的603名员工为被试,通过探索性因素分析和验证性因素分析,探讨了员工自我调节学习的心理机制。研究结果表明,员工自我调节学习的基本结构包括学习动力调节和策略调节两个方面。研究结果为提高员工的自我调节学习水平提供了科学依据。     

AN EMPIRICAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING AN APPROPRIATE INTERVAL LENGTH FOR RECORDING BEHAVIOR

The study sought to examine the effects of varying interval length on the representation of data obtained using modified frequency time sampling. A 7-category scale was used to observe reliably the behavior of eight psychiatric inpatients. Using electronic real time recording equipment, it was possible to computer analyze the obtained data at varying interval lengths, the shortest interval being 1.0 seconds. It was found that increasing the interval length had little effect on the percentage of total duration recorded within each behavioral category, suggesting that this is a relatively stable measure of behavior. Percentage total events for each category was less stable with increasing interval lengths. The number of recorded events within each category tended to decrease, while their average durations tended to increase, as a function of increasing the interval length. The data suggest that the current practice of determining interval length in an arbitrary fashion, or on the basis of convention, should be abandoned. Rather, such a decision should be empirically determined for each particular observation scale and subject group. One method by which this might be achieved is presented.     

DIMENSIONAL INTERPRETATION AND CONFIGURATION INVARIANCE IN MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY

This paper is concerned with: a ) the invariance of nonmetric multi- dimensional scaling soludions over changes in stimulus domain; and b) pro- cedures for assisting the researcher in interpreting the axes of multidimen- sional scaling configurations. The stimuli consisted of the names of 17 popular brands of automobiles. Similarities and preference judgments were obtained from 37 subjects, divided into two groups of approximately equal size. Each group received 11 of the 17 stimuli. A core set of 6 stimuli was common over both groups. Each group also rated the 11 car models on 20 semantic differential scales. Results of the study suggested that the interpoint distances of bhe core set of 5 stimuli remained stable over subject groups and differences in stimulus set composition. Semantic differential ratings were used to find directions in the configurational space (obtained from overall similarity judg- ments) whose projections were maximally correlated with the outside (property) vectors. Stimulus configurations developed from the semantic differential space were highly congruent with those found by the analysis of direct similarity judgments. However, attempts to develop stimulus configurations by the "unfolding" of preference data alone did not lead to configurations which closely matched those found by the analysis of direct similarities data.     

A HULLIAN CONSTANT AS AN INDEX OF INTELLIGENCE: TWO EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Following Clark Hull, it is widely considered that the asymptote of the learning curve represents motivational factors, but that rate of approach to asymptote ('i') represents associational factors. The suggestion that i may be a measure of intelligence was tested empirically in two studies. An initial exploratory study yielded a positive correlation between i and IQ. A more rigorous replication did not. The results are discussed briefly.     

PROBLEM BEHAVIOR DURING PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS

Preferences of 2 children with developmental disabilities, whose functional analyses indicated that their problem behavior was maintained by access to tangible items, were assessed using three formats (i.e., paired stimulus [PS], multiple‐stimulus without replacement [MSWO], and free operant [FO]). The experimenter administered each format five times and compared levels of problem behavior across formats in a multielement design. Both participants exhibited problem behavior in PS and MSWO formats but not in the FO format. Results are discussed in terms of recommendations for practitioners.     

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF A TRAIT-ORIENTED JOB ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

A trait-oriented job analysis technique based on a checklist of 33 a priori carefully defined traits that encompass elements of the physical, mental, learned, motivational and social domains of the work world is described. The analysis identifies the relevant traits, their levels and weights, in relation to overall job performance. Results of discriminability tests were supportive of the job analysis technique and indicated that incumbents of jobs requiring a particular trait scored higher on measures (predictors) of that trait than incumbents of jobs not requiring that trait. Implications of the results for personnel selection and placement are discussed.     

AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT OF DATA COLLECTION USING THE INTERNET

Identical questionnaire items were used to gather data from 2 samples of employees. One sample ( n = 50) responded to a survey implemented on the World Wide Web. Another sample ( n = 181) filled out a paper version of the survey. Analyses of the 2 data sets supported an exploration of the viability of World Wide Web data collection. The World Wide Web data had fewer missing values than the paper and pencil data. A covariance analysis simultaneously conducted in both samples indicated similar covariance structures among the tested variables. The costs and benefits of using access controls to improve sampling are discussed. Four applications that do not require such access controls are discussed.     

AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF OVERSEAS CHINESE MANAGERIAL IDEOLOGY*

This study of managerial ideology focuses on the question of legitimacy and attempts to reconstruct the way in which the role of the chief executive is perceived in the context of Overseas Chinese economic cultures. The location of the study is Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore and those studied were 72 chief executives in Chinese business organizations. Three determinants of present-day beliefs are traced to the socio-historical legacy of China, and these are identified as paternalism, personalism and a defensiveness derived from insecurity. The workings of their influence are traced via perceptions of the self, of relationships, of organization, and of society at large, to explain how executives rationalize their behaviour and their roles.     

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF A ROLE ENACTMENT MODEL OF PERSUASION

Prior research into self-persuasive effects has produced empirical propositions that address the communication process only in a very general way. While psychological formulations are helpful in generating constructs and propositions dealing with intrasource effects as a function of counterattitudinal advocacy, the generalizability of these findings appears limited. Berger's role enactment model of persuasion provides constructs and propositions that comport more exactly with practical communicative experiences. The present study tested the relationships obtaining among concepts crucial to the model. Results confirmed the prediction that role aptitude and task-relevant information were positively related to attitude change. The relationship among the role aptitude, information, and post-performance evaluation variables was not confirmed. The results and refinements of the model were discussed in terms of the potential the model has for more precise tests of communication effects. Message complexity, varying information levels, and other variables were discussed as amenable to tests employing the role enactment model. While self-persuasion situations offer an appropriate paradigm in which to test general social psychology theories, there is some doubt as to the contribution such research can make to our understanding of communication. It is a question of “social significance.” Do sources frequently speak against their “true” attitudes? If so, do intra-source effects tell us much about communication between people? In short, can practical gains be achieved in counterattitudinal advocacy research? We believe that many of the processes associated with self-persuasion are similar to those which characterize interpersonal communication. These similarities are most obvious when one approaches communication research in the context of role theory. (1972, 260)     

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF A MODEL OF RESISTANCE TO PERSUASION

This investigation synthesized research from several related areas to produce a model of resistance to persuasion based upon variables not considered by earlier congruity and inoculation models. Support was found for the prediction that the kind of critical response set induced and the target of the criticism are mediators of resistance to persuasion. The more critical acts are focused on arguments presented in a persuasive message, the more likely that the critical act will not be distracting and therefore promote counterarguing which will lead people to be resistant to subsequent persuasive messages arguing on the same side of given attitudinal issue. When criticism is less central to message variables and focuses on speaker and/or delivery characteristics, distraction occurs which decreases the probability of counterarguing and induces people to be vulnerable to forthcoming persuasive messages. This is especially true when negative criticism of speaker characteristics reduces threat to present attitudes and reduces motivation to counterargue to protect privately held beliefs. A completely counterbalanced design employing several manipulation checks was created to rule out competing explanations for differential resistance to persuasion.