Gender differences in perceptions of leadership

A study was conducted to examine gender differences in perceptions of leadership. Subjects (N=320) were assigned to same-sex groups of four to six members. The groups participated in a leaderless group discussion and then assessed characteristics of their own and their peers' leadership. The subjects also completed a self-esteem inventory. Correlational analyses revealed that when evaluating their peers, both men and women associated being a leader and having leadership skills with an authoritarian leadership style. In self-perceptions, however, women associated having positive leadership skills with an authoritarian style, but men associated their own leadership skills with a democratic style. The self-esteem of both genders was differentially related to their perceptions of leadership style. These results suggest that men and women hold a leadership stereotype which equates the leadership skills of their peers with an authoritarian style of leadership. However, women but not men base their assessments of their own leadership skills on this leadership stereotype.     

Sex differences in comments made during conflict within close heterosexual pairs

Questionnaires were used to investigate (1) stereotypes about what young couples do and say during their conflicts and (2) reports (by actual young couples) of what each one is likely to do or say. The two sets of data yielded much the same pattern of results. The female is expected and reported to cry and sulk and to criticize the male for lack of consideration of her feelings and for insensitivity to his effect on her. The male is expected and reported to show anger, to reject the female's tears, to call for a logical and less emotional approach to the problem, and to give reasons for delaying the discussion. The Study I expectations for sex differences during conflict are held to about the same degree by the female and male respondents. In both studies, the differences were found to depend primarily on sex of the person and not on the particular problem involved in the conflict. The results are interpreted in terms of the interaction between a conflict-avoidant person (the male) and his partner (the female), who is frustrated by the avoidance and asks that the problem and the feelings associated with it be confronted.     

Gender role perceptions of women in abusive relationships

A community sample of psychologically abused women (N = 93; 83 Anglo, 4 Hispanic, 4 African-American, 1 Native American, 1 “Other”) in 3 groups (psychological abuse only, with moderate violence, with severe violence) received payment for completing lengthy questionnaires and interviews. This study concerns women’s perceptions of their own and their partners’ gender roles and gender role attitudes. Women in all 3 groups rated themselves feminine and egalitarian, as hypothesized. Ratings of their partners were near the midpoint of the scales on masculinity and traditionalism, contrary to hypotheses. Women experiencing psychological abuse with severe violence had more negative perceptions of their partners and believed their partners had more negative views of them than did women who shared the common experience of psychological abuse but sustained less or no violence. This research was funded by Grant Number 1R29MH44217 from the National Institute of Mental Health awarded to the second author. Portions of this study were reported at the Fourth International Family Violence Research Conference, Durham, NH, July 1995. Thanks to Dr. Sue Rosenberg Zalk and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions.     

Gender differences in perceptions of normal body weights

The current study employed an alternative methodology to assess perceptions of normal range body weight. Male and female undergraduates were asked to give weight ranges for male and female targets, rather than use figure silhouettes. Male respondents felt that lighter weights in men and women were more normal. Female participants believed that heavier weight ranges were normal, both for themselves and for men. Despite this, women were no more likely than men to report being overweight and to be dieting. Future studies should utilize both figure silhouette drawings and acceptable weight range estimates to determine the influence of methodology on reported findings.     

Gender differences in perceptions of normal body weights

The current study employed an alternative methodology to assess perceptions of normal range body weight. Male and female undergraduates were asked to give weight ranges for male and female targets, rather than use figure silhouettes. Male respondents felt that lighter weights in men and women were more normal. Female participants believed that heavier weight ranges were normal, both for themselves and for men. Despite this, women were no more likely than men to report being overweight and to be dieting. Future studies should utilize both figure silhouette drawings and acceptable weight range estimates to determine the influence of methodology on reported findings.     

Gender differences in standards for romantic relationships

Why is it that women often report more problems in their romantic relationships than do men? One explanation apparent in the literature is that women may view different standards as important for relationships than do their male counterparts and, as a consequence, women may be less likely to have their standards met. A second explanation is that while women and men may not differ in terms of the importance they associate with various standards, the experiences they have in their romantic relationships may lead women Lo believe their standards are not fulfilled as often as do men. The current study offers a preliminary test of these two rival explanations and found greater support for the latter. Analyses of two composite measures and more detailed factor-based measures generally indicated that the standards held by women and men involved in heterosexual romantic relationships were rated similar in importance. Women, however, tended to note that their standards were met less fully than did men. Further, compared to men, women reported a greater discrepancy between the importance they associated with various standards and the extent to which the standards were fulfilled in the context of their relationship. The ability of two different theoretical models to predict and explain these findings is discussed, as re the implications of the results for future research.     

Gender differences in perceptions of the healthiness of foods

Abstract

Our perceptions of the healthiness of foods are thought to influence what we decide to eat. Reportedly, women (as compared to men) eat more nutritious foods and are more likely to consider health issues when deciding what to eat However, until now, few studies have investigated possible gender differences in perceptions of the healthiness of foods. In the present study, men and women answered questions pertaining to nutritional habits, then rated a variety of foods according to their healthfulness. Results indicated that women, compared to men, tended to emphasize fat content over nutrient levels when deciding what foods are healthy. If perceptions of food health influence consumption, it is likely that females, as compared to males, would be more likely to suffer from malnutrition.     

Gender differences in perceptions and consequences of an eating binge

Little systematic research has examined the factors that contribute to perceptions of an eating binge. This study showed videotapes of a single male, single female, or three females eating a variable number of doughnuts at different rates to male and female undergraduate subjects. Subjects were asked to label their own eating as a binge or not, had they eaten like the person on the videotape, and how they would feel afterward. The majority of female subject labeled their own eating as a binge under all conditions, and endorsed negative emotional outcomes. Males required a large number of doughnuts, or rapid consumption before the majority labeled it a binge, and experienced mostly gastrointestinal outcomes. Many noneating disordered women in our culture may be labeling much of their eating as a binge and experience dysphoria afterward.     

Sources of annoyance in close relationships: sex-related differences in annoyance with partner behaviors

The present study is an examination of sex differences in the sources of annoyance that partners in close relationships might experience as a result of each other's behavior. To test hypotheses derived from S. E. Cross and L. Madson's (1997) self-construal theory and from D. M. Buss's (1989) evolutionary psychology-based model, men and women of varying ages and educational levels were asked to rate how annoyed they would be with each of 13 potentially annoying behaviors of their intimate partner. Results were consistent with self-construal theory in that relationship-threatening behaviors were more annoying to women than to men and autonomy threatening behaviors were more annoying to men than to women. Results were also consistent with evolutionary psychology in that aggressive behaviors were more annoying to women than to men and sexual withholding was relatively more annoying to men than to women. Sex differences in annoyance with relationship-threatening, autonomy-threatening, and reproductive strategy behaviors were independent of age and education level, although these factors did affect respondents' annoyance when partners were unemotional, sloppy, or pleased with their own appearance. Results showed that sources of annoyance in intimate relationships should not only be studied from an evolutionary perspective but from the perspectives of social, personality, and developmental psychology as well.     

Gender differences in the development of relationships during late adolescence

Until recently, inadequate measures of affiliation need and relationship closeness hindered investigations into the social development of adolescents. For example, assumptions about gender differences (Douvan & Adelson, 1966; Gilligan, 1982) and age-related changes (Dunphy, 1972; Erikson, 1968; Newman & Newman, 1976) in affiliation need and relationship closeness have remained virtually untested. To better understand adolescent social behavior and test these assumptions, recently developed measures of affiliation need and interpersonal closeness were used to examine seventy-four 18- to 20-year-olds. In support of Erikson's theory, need for social comparison declined with age for both sexes. However, in support of Gilligan's theory, not only were females more attached to their partners, but these gender differences were most pronounced for the 18-year-olds. Finally, Dunphy's (1972) assumption that adolescents' need for stimulation peaks around age 18 or 19 and then declines, and Newman and Newman's (1976) position that need for emotional support declines in later adolescence, held true--but only for females.     

Gender,Interpersonal Orientation,and manipulation tactic use in close relationships

Investigations have focused on influence tactic pattern use in relation to socialized power differences due to gender. We carried Swap and Rubin's (1987) Interpersonal Orientation (IO) variable into the Buss, Gomes, Higgins, & Lauterbach (1987) framework for manipulation tactic use. Subjects were male and female undergraduates (N= 53) who scored either in the upper or lower quartiles of the IO scale. At testing, high and low IO subjects completed a demographic questionnaire and the Manipulation Tactics index with regard to a close, opposite-sex friend. We found that high IO females reported more frequent use of manipulation tactics than low IO females. Males' reported use of manipulation tactics was unrelated to their IO status. The results were discussed in terms of possible adaptive patterns developed by females to deal with perceived chronic powerlessness.     

Violence in close relationships: The role of emotion

Violence in dating, cohabiting, and marital relationships is examined in terms of emotion-related vulnerabilities. A systems-oriented theoretical framework is offered to explain the role that emotions play in common, less severe forms of violent couple interactions and in severe violent couple interactions. Emotions playing a protective role in close relationships are contrasted with emotions serving to enhance risk for couple violence.     

Gender differences in adolescent concerns and emotional well-being: perceptions of Singaporean adolescent students

Although much has been written about adolescent adjustment and coping in Western countries, relatively little is known about similar issues in Asia. The authors examined the emotional adjustment of young adolescents in Singapore. They report adolescent concerns and how they influence adaptive functioning and emotional well-being. Data were obtained from three self-report measures: the Adolescent Concerns Measure (R. P Ang, W. H. Chong, V. S. Huan, & L. S. Yeo, in press), selected scales of the Behavioral Assessment System for Children Personality Self-Report (C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus, 1998), and the Emotional Distress Scale of the Reynolds Adolescent Adjustment Screening Inventory (W. M. Reynolds, 2001). Emotional well-being emerged as a dominant concern for Singaporean youths with significant gender differences. Girls reported a more positive attitude toward school, better friendship skills, and stronger relationships with parents than did boys. However, girls registered significantly greater worries about self and emotional distress compared to boys. The authors discuss implications for teachers and mental health professionals.     

Sex differences in maternal behaviors of immature rats: The role of emotionality

Immature rats are able to give maternal care to pups and may increase their inclusive fitness by helping newborn siblings. Immature males are generally reported to be more maternal than females. In this research we studied sex differences and the extent to which they may be due to a different emotional response to novelty. We studied maternal response in two groups of immature rats of both sexes: in the naive group, juveniles aged from 18 to 30 days were given one test and showed clear-cut sex differences. The experience group was submitted to repeated tests from 18 to 30 days of age, thus eliminating the effects of novelty: as a result, all differences between sexes disappeared. A second experiment was designed in 24-day-old females to differentiate the effects of repeated handling and exposure to the test situation from that of repeated exposure to pups; moreover, the effects of an anxiety-reducing drug (diazepam) were studied. Exposure to pups is particularly efficient in facilitating maternal response. Diazepam injection was also effective, but its control showed that the injection per se was responsible for the effect. In conclusion, our results stress the importance of response to novelty and suggest that sex differences in maternal behavior of immature rats may be modulated by different emotional responses by males and females. In fact, emotionality competes with, and may exert an inhibitory effect on, the expression of a vast array of behaviors. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The etiology of children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality

Contemporary preschool-aged children have pronounced sex-role stereotypes about emotionality. They feel that anger is a male characteristic, while fear, sadness, and happiness are female characteristics. Four studies investigated several possible sources of these stereotypes, including parental stereotypes, parental reinforcement practices, television programming, and actual sex-differences in emotionality. The results suggest that each of these sources may potentially contribute to children's stereotypes about emotionality.     

The role of sexual attitude similarity in romantic heterosexual relationships

This investigation explored the role of sexual attitude similarity in sexually involved romantic couples. Findings indicate that sexual attitudes of partners are positively correlated, and that partners exhibit significantly greater levels of similarity than randomly generated couples. Similarity in sexual attitudes did not vary as a function of length of relationship or length of sexual involvement. Gender differences were evident in the correlations between certain types of sexual attitudes and the four indicators of relationship quality: sexual satisfaction, relational satisfaction, commitment, and sexual communication satisfaction. In addition, sexual communication satisfaction mediated the effect of sexual attitude similarity on both males' and females' sexual satisfaction.     

Children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality

In spite of the egalitarian atmosphere of recent years, contemporary preschool children possess pronounced stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality. They associate anger with maleness, but associate happiness, sadness, and fear with femaleness. These stereotypes are similar to those held by adults, but are largely dissimilar to actual sex differences in emotionality. The impact and possible etiology of these stereotypes are discussed.     

Aggression in British heterosexual relationships: A descriptive analysis

A 12-item scale, derived from the Conflict Tactics Scale, was administered to a representative sample of 1,978 heterosexual men and women in Great Britain in mid November 1994. Men and women were asked to identify conflict tactics sustained or inflicted in all past and present relationships and those sustained in current relationships. This paper reports results for physical victimization and also reports on two further questions asked to discern context and meaning ascribed to such sustained or inflicted victimization. Both sexes reported having experienced physical victimization with a higher percentage of men sustaining victimization, mainly as a result of minor acts of assault. Almost equal percentages of men and women reported inflicting victimization against partners. Additionally, incidence of physical victimization is presented according to relationship status, age, socioeconomic category, and by regional distribution. Both sexes reported a range of reasons or contexts ascribed to their sustained or inflicted victimization. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Gender differences in the perceptions of self's and others' use of power strategies

The utility of P. B. Johnson's [Women and Interpersonal Power, in D. N. Ruble & G. L. Zellman (Eds.), Women and Sex Roles, New York: W. W. Norton, 1978] framework for the sex typing of power strategies was examined. Female and male subjects rated the extent to which they used a number of power strategies in order to get their way with others. Subjects also rated their perceptions of the extent to which either men-in-general or women-in-general used the strategies. Partial support for Johnson's framework was found in that males reported greater use of masculine-typed strategies than did females, though they did not report using these strategies more than feminine-typed ones. Females did not report significantly greater use of feminine strategies than did males, though they reported using more feminine- than masculine-typed strategies. Data also indicated that both males and females held similar gender-consistent sex-stereotyped perceptions of the power strategies used by men-in-general and women-in-general. Comparison of self-report ratings with usage attributions for men-in-general and women-in-general revealed that both male and female subjects perceived themselves to use most of the strategies less often and to be more inclined to use socially desirable strategies involving reason and logic and compromise.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 29th annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, March 1983.     

Gender and working models of attachment: Consequences for perceptions of self and romantic relationships

Several theorists have proposed that differential socialization experiences lead men and women to differ in the importance they assign to relationships and in how they interpret and respond to relationships. To explore this idea, this study examined whether men and women who reported similar attachment experiences responded differently to information about the same kind of relationship. Men and women with secure, preoccupied, or avoidant models of attachment imagined themselves in a relationship with a hypothetical partner who displayed secure, preoccupied, or avoidant behavior. As predicted, avoidant men and preoccupied women, whose attachment models exaggerated gender-role stereotypes, expressed the most negativity toward themselves and the relationship. Women also were more likely than men to apply specific information about the imagined relationship to general beliefs about their own relationships. In addition, men and women whose attachment models matched the partner's behavior responded more favorably to the relationship if they both expressed security, but less favorably if they both expressed avoidance. Findings for gender and partner matching closely paralleled those for couples in long-term relationships and support the idea that the meaning and consequences of attachment models must be considered within the context of gender roles.