Violence against women: is psychology part of the problem or the solution? A content analysis of psychological research from 1990 through 1999

Previous critiques of traditional psychology portrayed a discipline that examines social problems from an exceptionalistic perspective and decontextualizes the subjects of its inquiries. We analysed 10 years of psychological research on domestic violence, sexual assault, and sexual harassment to determine whether this criticism applied to violence against women research. Specifically, we examined the purpose, level of analysis, sample, and context of 1396 PsychLit abstracts. We found that almost half reported an examination of causal factors. Only one quarter reported intervention studies. Most studies focused at the individual level of analysis and few included contextual factors. Investigators explored questions about domestic violence most frequently among samples of victims and perpetrators drawn from clinical settings. Sexual assault and sexual harassment researchers depended on victims and perpetrators to a lesser extent, but tended to rely upon convenience samples from college settings. Representative community samples were used in only 9% of studies. These findings support the view that psychological research on violence against women suffers from a heavy emphasis on exceptionalism at the expense of a universalistic perspective, the latter of which we contend is critical to advancing the field and reducing a major threat to women's health and wellbeing. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of Race and Victim Drinking on Domestic Violence Attributions

This research examines the mutual influence of race and victim drinking on college students' domestic violence attributions. Participants were 200, predominately White, middle-class college students. They read a vignette depicting a domestic violence incident. Manipulated within the vignette were batterer race, victim race, and victim drinking. After reading the vignette, participants completed a questionnaire concerning their perceptions of the domestic assault. Results indicate batterers in interracial relationships are attributed more guilt than batterers in same-race relationships. In addition, when domestic violence victims drink alcoholic beverages before a domestic assault, more responsibility for the assault is attributed to Black victims than to their White counterparts. Furthermore, domestic violence victims who drink alcohol are ascribed more blame and derogation in comparison to abstinent domestic violence victims. We examine these findings in relation to stereotypes and gender-role violations. Implications for actors involved in domestic violence are also discussed.     

Males' Reactions to Participating in Research on Dating Violence Victimization and Childhood Abuse

Childhood abuse and dating violence victimization are prevalent and devastating problems. Although there has been an abundance of research on these topics in recent years, researchers and institutional review boards often struggle with determining whether asking respondents questions on previous violence will result in increased emotional distress or other negative research outcomes. Empirical data are therefore needed that examine the research reactions of individuals who participate in research on childhood abuse and dating violence. This study examined this topic among a sample of male college students (N?=?193). Results showed that victims of childhood sexual abuse had more negative emotional reactions and victims of physical dating violence had more negative perceived drawbacks to research participation than nonvictims. However, victims and nonvictims did not differ on positive research reactions. These findings suggest that there are few differences between victims and nonvictims on research reactions.     

Moving Beyond the Individual: Examining the Effects of Domestic Violence Policies on Social Norms

To be effective, criminal justice policies should affect the underlying social norms for which the policies were enacted. This study sought to determine whether public perceptions of criminal justice policies on domestic violence affected social norms. Two waves of data were collected via a telephone survey where a random probability sample of 973 residents was drawn from 4 communities. A structural equation model was tested and confirmed. Results provided strong support for the hypothesis that perceptions of criminal justice policies have direct effects on attitudes toward criminal justice response, and indirect effects on victim-blaming attitudes, both underlying social norms related to domestic violence. The enactment of criminal justice policies, therefore, may have an impact beyond victims and perpetrators and lead to a transformation of the community through the emergence of new social norms. Public awareness campaigns designed to disseminate criminal justice policies may be instrumental in provoking social change.     

Domestic violence and mental health in a Dutch community sample: The adverse role of loneliness

The present study explored whether the adverse mental health consequences of domestic violence victimization vary by type of loneliness (i.e., emotional and social loneliness). Participants were drawn from the Dutch city of Rotterdam (N = 7072). Domestic violence victimization, emotional loneliness and social loneliness were associated with self‐reported mental health. In addition, interaction effects were observed between domestic violence victimization and each type of loneliness. Implications for policy practice as well as strengths and limitations of the study were discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Domestic Violence Service Providers’ Technology Readiness and Information Needs

Technology-based applications hold promise as effective, efficient means of disseminating research- and practice-based information to professionals whose work relates to domestic violence. Other related uses of technology in the field have grown, including safety planning to address technology-related risks to victims and software programs being integrated into domestic violence agencies. However, to date, the levels of technology readiness and technology-related information needs of these professionals have received minimal research attention. This study involved a national survey of 471 professionals whose work addresses domestic violence. The findings demonstrate differences in professionals’ technology readiness based on key demographic and professional characteristics. They also reveal the most frequently noted information needs within this professional field. Implications for future research and practice are provided.     

Childhood Exposure to Community and Domestic Violence: Prevalence,Risk Factors and Posttraumatic Outcomes in a South African Student Sample

The effects of exposure to direct and vicarious community and domestic violence on the posttraumatic adjustment of 323 South African students were examined. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires, with the relationship between exposure to violence and posttraumatic outcomes being explored using binomial logistic regression analyses. Two hundred and sixty-two participants (81 %) reported that they had been exposed to some form of interpersonal violence during childhood. An analysis of risk factors for exposure to violence indicated that males were more than twice as likely as females to have experienced victimization by a community member. Direct exposure to domestic violence was the only form of violence which was found to be associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Among participants who had experienced direct domestic violence, clinically significant levels of PTSD were significantly predicted by both gender (being female) and by abuse chronicity.     

College Campus Community Readiness to Address Intimate Partner Violence Among LGBTQ+ Young Adults: A Conceptual and Empirical Examination

This paper provides an overview of a conceptual model that integrates theories of social ecology, minority stress, and community readiness to better understand risk for and outcomes of intimate partner violence (IPV) among LGBTQ+ college students. Additionally, online survey data was collected from a sample of 202 LGBTQ+ students enrolled in 119 colleges across the United States to provide preliminary data on some aspects of the proposed model. Results suggested that students generally thought their campuses were low in readiness to address IPV; that is, students felt that their campuses could do more to address IPV and provide IPV services specific to LGBTQ+ college students. Perceptions of greater campus readiness to address IPV among LGBTQ+ college students was significantly and positively related to a more favorable LGBTQ+ campus climate and a greater sense of campus community. Additionally, IPV victims were more likely to perceive higher levels of campus community readiness than non‐IPV victims. There was no association between IPV perpetration and perceptions of campus community readiness. Greater sense of community was marginally and inversely related to IPV victimization and perpetration. Sense of community and LGBTQ+ campus climate also varied to some extent as a function of region of the country and type of institution. Implications for further development and refinement of the conceptual model, as well as future research applying this model to better understand IPV among sexual minority students are discussed.     

Remaining in a situationally aggressive relationship: The role of relationship self‐efficacy

Relationship self‐efficacy (RSE) is the belief that one can resolve relationship conflicts, and it may lead victims of situational violence to remain in their relationships because they expect to minimize subsequent violence. Indeed, a longitudinal study of two samples of college students demonstrated that RSE moderates the effects of victimization on relationship dissolution; intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization was positively associated with dissolution among intimates low in RSE but was unassociated with dissolution among intimates high in RSE. Interestingly, although RSE was negatively associated with dissolution among victims, it was associated with experiencing less subsequent IPV in one sample. Ultimately, whether victims' RSE is adaptive may depend on the extent to which any minimization of conflicts eliminates violence.     

Prevalence and Predictors of Psychological Violence Against Male Victims in Intimate Relationships in Canada

Psychological violence involves expressive violence (i.e., the use of words to humiliate or psychologically harm a partner) and coercive violence (i.e., controlling behavior directed to dominate and manipulate a partner). From studies that collect data on both physical and psychological violence, it is apparent that psychological violence is the most prevalent form of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, psychological violence is one of the dimensions of IPV that has received relatively less attention. Furthermore, very little is known about the state of female-to-male psychological violence, as most studies on the subject have focused on female victims. This study seeks to understand recent trends and prevalence of psychological violence in male-to-female and female-to-male relationships in Canada. Using the 2014 General Social Survey (Victimization) data, the risk factors of female-to-male psychological violence were analyzed. The findings of the analysis revealed that there are significant differences in the prevalence of psychological violence among victims when gender is taken into consideration. The study also revealed that childhood victimization, childhood exposure to domestic violence, marijuana use, and educational attainment are predictors of female-to-male psychological violence. The study highlights the need for more studies to be conducted to attain a better understanding of the nature and context of psychological violence in heterosexual relationships.     

Domestic Violence Screening in Medical and Mental Health Care Settings

ABSTRACT

Health care providers and patients agree that domestic violence presents a serious health issue that falls within the purview of medical care. The patient-physician encounter has the potential to assist domestic violence victims in considering their options of living without violence and playing a critical role in preventing future violence. Despite this possibility, many persons evaluated in the health care system do not experience the benefits of such interactions. This article reviews current research that evaluates physician, patient, and systems barriers to providing care to patients experiencing domestic violence as well as gaps in the current research and suggestions for how these barriers might be overcome. Educational initiatives, implementation of protocols, and increasing environmental cues that prompt patients and physicians to discuss domestic violence may all increase the likelihood of screening and the success of interventions.     

Solutions to the Research-Practice Gap in Domestic Violence: A Modified Delphi Study With Domestic Violence Coalition Leaders

The gap between research and practice in domestic violence (DV) has the potential to hinder advancements in both areas. This study used modified Delphi methodology to seek potential solutions for integrating DV research and practice. Expert panel members were representatives of DV coalitions who hold primary responsibility for determining the content of the training program and materials provided by coalitions to service providers. Through three rounds of questionnaires, potential solutions were identified in six areas: access to research, the practical application of research, DV coalitions' needs and usage of research, perceptions of research and researchers, researcher-practitioner collaborations, and the goals of DV. The findings of the study are integrated into recommendations for researchers and DV organizations.     

Fear as a Mediator for the Relationship Between Child Sexual Abuse and Victimization of Relationship Violence

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has been identified as a predictor for dating violence victimization; however, the mechanism for this relationship is unexplored. The current study examined whether fearful dating experiences may help explain the relationship between CSA and dating violence victimization. Participants (N =?327 college women) completed self-report measures of CSA, fearful dating experiences, and dating violence. In a mediational model test, CSA was found to be positively associated with fear in dating relationships and with dating violence victimization, fear was associated with dating violence victimization, and the effect of CSA on dating violence victimization scores was reduced after controlling for fear. A Sobel's test showed that fear partially mediated the relationship between CSA and current dating violence victimization.     

Disclosure Experiences of Sexual Minority College Student Victims of Intimate Partner Violence

Although research on disclosure following intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization is burgeoning, sexual minority young adults’ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, questioning, etc.; LGBQ+) experiences have not received equal attention. The current study employed the minority stress framework to examine disclosure experiences of LGBQ+ college students across the United States reporting physical IPV victimization within their current relationship (n = 77). Participants completed measures assessing minority stress and IPV disclosure, and answered open‐ended questions regarding the most and least helpful persons/responses to disclosure or reasons for non‐disclosure. Results indicated that approximately one‐third (35 %) of victims disclosed to at least one person, with friends being the most common recipients. Thematic analyses indicated that talking or listening to the victim was considered the most helpful response and not understanding the situation least helpful. Reasons for non‐disclosure centered on themes of the victims’ perception that the IPV was not a big deal. Quantitative findings regarding physical IPV disclosure indicated that non‐disclosers experienced greater minority stress than disclosers. The current study suggests the presence of differences between sexual minority (i.e., LGBQ +persons) and non‐sexual minority persons, as well as between LGBQ+ young adults/college students and older adults and presents a theoretical structure (i.e., minority stress framework) through which these differences may be understood.     

Myths and stereotypes of actors involved in domestic violence: Implications for domestic violence culpability attributions

Stereotypes exist about actors involved in domestic violence, particularly women of color. It has been suggested that Black women are more aggressive and accustomed to violence than White women. Moreover, victim resistance, marital status, and perceiver’s sex have all been found to influence perceptions of domestic violence culpability. Since the 1970s, when domestic violence was acknowledged as a social problem, researchers have examined how the lay person’s perceptions of battered women and their batterers are influenced by extralegal factors. Although research on perceptions of domestic violence when White women and men are involved has increased dramatically in recent years, there is a dearth of research on perceptions of such violence when women and men of color are participants. The available findings on the influence of stereotypical notions concerning victims and batterers upon perceptions of domestic violence are examined. This review will provide the available evidence and suggest research areas where information is needed to more fully address the needs of people of color in understanding their own victimization and how actors in the legal system can guard against biased responding.     

Sexual violence perceptions among Christian college students

Sexual violence is a persistent problem, both nationally and globally, with college females having an elevated risk over their non-college peers. However, there have been limited studies exploring the beliefs that specific sub-populations, such as religious groups, have about sexual violence. A central objective of this study was to provide a better understanding of student needs in order to assist administrators and student service professionals as they offer support for students in Christian higher education settings. This study was a comprehensive, exploratory survey into the attitudes and perceptions of rape myth acceptance, sexism, authoritarianism, violence, and safety, as well as occurrence of sexual violence, among Christian college students at a mid-Atlantic Christian university was conducted. The results demonstrate which concepts relate to or were predicted by students’ rape myth acceptance, as well as ascertaining similarities and differences between secular and religious colleges. Recommendations for universities, program developers, and researchers are discussed.     

Applying Schema Theory to Intimate Aggression: Individual and Gender Differences in Representation of Contexts and Goals1

This study addressed individual and gender differences in the availability and content of memory representations of contexts and goals for physical aggression use in intimate relationships among university students. The contribution of victimization by one's partner to such representations was examined as well. Interaction effects in both quantitative and qualitative results indicated that perpetrator men differed from nonviolent men in measures of accessibility, providing more responses faster, and from nonviolent subjects and perpetrator women in their most frequently supplied categories of explanation for intimate aggression. Findings also provided indirect support for women's defensive uses of aggression, and evidence for the influence of emotion on memory access and content, including suppression of response time among female victims and male nonviolent victims.     

Clergy Response to Domestic Violence: A Preliminary Survey of Clergy Members,Victims, and Batterers

Although the presence of both religious organizations and violence in American communities is pervasive, scant attention has focused on how to best enroll clergy and religiously oriented resources in the battle against family violence. Given that it is not uncommon for women or couples to seek counseling or advice from clergy before accessing community-based resources, the frequency, nature, and utility of these contacts were assessed in this exploratory study from the perspectives of 47 female victims and 70 male perpetrators of domestic violence. Forty-one clergy members from various denominations were also surveyed about their contacts with those seeking help for domestic violence. Results indicated that 43% of the victims and 20% of the perpetrators did seek help from clergy. Almost all of the victims who contacted clergy reported satisfaction with the counsel they received. All clergy respondents reported counseling people who had experienced domestic violence during their career, and 80% had violence-related contacts in the past year. The service-related implications of these clergy contacts from victim, perpetrator, and clergy perspectives are discussed.     

Violent Experiences Questionnaire Predictors of Low Base-Rate Aggressive Acts

This study found elevations in low base-rate aggressive acts among college students (n = 171) who reported (via the Violent Experiences Questionnaire–Revised) exposure to extreme forms of maltreatment (i.e., parental physical abuse, domestic violence, sibling abuse, peer bullying, relational aggression) or corporal punishment during their upbringing. Low base-rate aggressive acts were identified through a separate customized questionnaire. Parental physical abuse was associated with an increased risk (three- to nine-fold) of past physical fighting, violence-related trouble, inflicting violent injury, and making a threat to kill someone. Corporal punishment was associated with elevated risk (two- to four-fold) of physical fighting or inflicting violent injury to another. Past threat(s) to kill were linked to histories of corporal punishment, sibling abuse, or domestic violence. These results illustrate that the adverse effects of childhood maltreatment extend broadly to both clinical and nonclinical samples.     

Interpersonal Style and Hypothetical Treatment Choice Among Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence

Individual differences between women victimized by intimate partner violence (IPV) may account for whether they choose to seek treatment and what kind of treatment they might prefer. Recent research has highlighted the importance of interpersonal warmth and dominance on women’s response to IPV, although this has not yet been extended to area of treatment choice in the aftermath of IPV victimization. In this study, we examined the association between interpersonal warmth and dominance on four choices of hypothetical treatment (individual therapy only, medication only, combined therapy and medication, and no treatment) in a sample of young adult women victimized by IPV (N = 117). Results indicated that the majority of women would choose therapy (with or without medication) and that interpersonal warmth was negatively associated, and dominance positively associated, with a preference for medication only. These findings extend previous research on both treatment choice and interpersonal style within the context of IPV.