Crossmodal correspondences between odors and contingent features: odors, musical notes, and geometrical shapes

Olfactory experiences represent a domain that is particularly rich in crossmodal associations. Whereas associations between odors and tastes, or other properties of their typical sources such as color or temperature, can be straightforwardly explained by associative learning, other matchings are much harder to explain in these terms, yet surprisingly are shared across individuals: The majority of people, for instance, associate certain odors and auditory features, such as pitch (Belkin, Martin, Kemp, & Gilbert, Psychological Science 8:340–342, 1997; Crisinel & Spence, Chemical Senses 37:151–158, 2012b) or geometrical shapes (Hanson-Vaux, Crisinel, & Spence, Chemical Senses 38:161–166, 2013; Seo, Arshamian, et al., Neuroscience Letters 478:175–178, 2010). If certain odors might indeed have been encountered while listening to certain pieces of music or seeing certain geometrical shapes, these encounters are very unlikely to have been statistically more relevant than others; for this reason, associative learning from regular exposure is ruled out, and thus alternative explanations in terms of metaphorical mappings are usually defended. Here we argue that these associations are not primarily conceptual or linguistic, but are grounded in structural perceptual or neurological determinants. These cases of crossmodal correspondences established between contingent environmental features can be explained as amodal, indirect, and transitive mappings across modalities. Surprising associations between odors and contingent sensory features can be investigated as genuine cases of crossmodal correspondences, akin to other widespread cases of functional correspondences that hold, for instance, between auditory and visual features, and can help reveal the structural determinants weighing on the acquisition of these crossmodal associations.     

Crossmodal associations between flavoured milk solutions and musical notes

A number of crossmodal associations have now been described in the context of food evaluation, such as between tastes or flavours and musical notes (Crisinel & Spence, 2010b). Here we extend these findings by presenting flavoured milk solutions of varying fat contents. The participants in the present study matched a series of milk samples to musical notes. They chose both the pitch and the class of instrument that they felt was most appropriate for each sample. Participants also rated various features of the samples, such as their pleasantness, bitterness, or familiarity. Consistent associations between flavours and both pitch and instruments were confirmed. However, fat content did not influence either the pitch or instrument chosen, although it did have an effect on pleasantness and intensity ratings. These results demonstrate that flavour–sound associations are not restricted to basic tastes and flavours presented individually, but are still present in the context of more complex food stimuli. The present study opens the way for further investigations into the nature and characteristics of crossmodal associations (or correspondences) between more complex stimuli, both in the auditory and gustatory/olfactory modalities. This novel approach could lead to new insights into the representation of chemosensory stimuli in humans.     

Association between synesthetic colors and sensitivity to physical colors changed by type of synesthetic experience in grapheme-color synesthesia

Grapheme-color synesthesia is a condition in which visual perception of letters induces simultaneous perception of a specific color. Previous studies indicate that grapheme-color synesthetes are more sensitive to physical colors than non-synesthetes. Synesthetic colors are found to be concentrated in multiple regions of the color space, forming “synesthetic color clusters”. The present study investigated whether color sensitivity corresponding to synesthetic color clusters (clustered colors) is higher than color sensitivity that does not correspond to synesthetic color clusters (non-clustered colors). However, we found no difference in the color sensitivity for clustered and non-clustered colors. We also investigated whether the color sensitivity is dependent on the synesthetic experience (associators and projectors). We found that the greater the tendency toward associator characteristics, the greater the sensitivity for clustered colors compared to that for non-clustered colors. Our findings suggest an association between synesthetic colors and physical color sensitivity that is modulated by synesthetic experience.     

Cross-modal interaction between vision and touch: the role of synesthetic correspondence

At each moment, we experience a melange of information arriving at several senses, and often we focus on inputs from one modality and 'reject' inputs from another. Does input from a rejected sensory modality modulate one's ability to make decisions about information from a selected one? When the modalities are vision and hearing, the answer is "yes", suggesting that vision and hearing interact. In the present study, we asked whether similar interactions characterize vision and touch. As with vision and hearing, results obtained in a selective attention task show cross-modal interactions between vision and touch that depend on the synesthetic relationship between the stimulus combinations. These results imply that similar mechanisms may govern cross-modal interactions across sensory modalities.     

Hemispheric asymmetries in the perception of musical intervals as a function of musical experience and family handedness background

This study examines the effect of musical experience and family handedness background on the categorization of musical intervals (two-note chords). Right-handed subjects, who were divided into four groups on the basis of musical training and presence (or absence) of left-handed family members, categorized musical intervals which were monaurally presented to left or right ear. The results, based on consistency and discreteness of categorization, showed: (1) Musicians' performance is superior to nonmusicians'; (2) musicians and nonmusicians differ significantly on their ear of preference; (3) family handedness background significantly affects ear of preference among musicians but not among nonmusicians.     

Music and social identity: Stylistic identification as a response to musical style

One function of music is considered to be defining social identity for oneself and for others. This aspect of musical styles was investigated in the light of Social Identity Theory by examining how a college student population described fans of different musical styles. Respondents were questioned about their perception of listeners of six musical styles, two of which were indigenous to Turkey. Three basic dimensions that described the listeners of these styles emerged as the result of factor and scale reliability analyses. These dimensions were labelled the sophisticated, the sprightly, and the loser. Respondents associated these features with fans of different styles to different extents. The sprightly dimension characterized listeners of pop, rock, and rap best. The sophisticated dimension was most closely associated with listeners of classical and Turkish folk music. Listening to Arabesk, which is a style that is specific to Turkey, was most closely associated with the loser dimension. Consistent with the predictions of Social Identity Theory, evaluations by a person were affected by the attitude of that person towards a style in the cases of rock and Turkish folk music. Especially on the sophisticated dimension, respondents who liked rock or Turkish folk music rated the listeners of these styles closer to the ideal than respondents who disliked them. However, the self‐evaluations of these groups were similar. Furthermore, respondents typically described themselves as being closer to the ideal value on the three dimensions than the listeners of musical styles they liked. These results provide considerable support for the idea that liking a musical style shows characteristics of group membership according to Social Identity Theory.     

Consistency in synesthetic experience to vowels and consonants: Five case studies

The present study attempted to specify the actual degree of consistency in synesthetic experience in two synesthetes and three non-synesthetes. By comparing colour chip selections, and size and density ratings, to the same set of stimulus letters on separate occasions, it was found that the synesthetic subjects showed a high consistency in responding over a short (24 hours) as well as a long (one year) time span. In comparison, the non-synesthetic subjects demonstrated less consistent responding when retested after 24 hours. However, the differences between the two groups were smaller than expected. Consistency to vowels and consonants was compared, and it was found that consistency to consonants was comparable to, or even higher than, vowel consistency in all subjects.     

Liking and memory for musical stimuli as a function of exposure

Three experiments examined changes in liking and memory for music as a function of number of previous exposures, the ecological validity of the music, and whether the exposure phase required focused or incidental listening. After incidental listening, liking ratings were higher for music heard more often in the exposure phase and this association was stronger as ecological validity increased. After focused listening, liking ratings followed an inverted U-shaped function of exposure for the most ecologically valid stimuli (initial increases followed by decreases), but this curvilinear function was attenuated or nonexistent for less valid stimuli. In general, recognition improved as a function of previous exposure for focused listeners, but the effect was attenuated or absent for incidental listeners.     

Transference neurosis as a waking dream: notes on a clinical enigma

This paper demonstrates clinically that the interactional features of a transference neurosis are the waking equivalents of a manifest dream. Through analytic investigation of the emerging repetitive extraverbal elements of apparent transference resistance behavior, it is discovered that the systematic analysis of the details of such behavior yields a picture of synthetic construction fundamentally the same as that seen in dreams. By using Freud's technique of systematic dream interpretation, the tightly organized, coded, and camouflaged presence of many key compromise formations determining a neurosis are found to be represented in compact, highly condensed clinical interactions, providing an overall picture of dreamwork in action. The four components of dreamwork are found to be the principal means by which the unconscious genetic and dynamic material is represented in the analytic field.     

Learning sound/symbol correspondences: Transfer effects of pattern detection and phonics instruction

This study tested predictions derived from Gibson and Levin (1975) and Gough and Hillinger (1980) regarding the effects of different forms of reading instruction on a test of ‘far generalization’, where students were asked read nonsense words containing untaught sound/symbol correspondences. Two instructional methods were compared, pattern detection training and a synthetic phonics lesson which taught the specific correspondences used on a first post-test. A control group received no treatment. The transfer effects of pattern detection training were demonstrated on a first post-test and with a measure of correspondence induction at the end of testing. A first and second post-test revealed that specific correspondence training increased decoding scores but did not transfer to novel correspondences. On a second post-test, pattern detection and specific correspondence groups did not differ in decoding score; apparently the induction skill of the pattern detection group was balanced by the knowledge base of the specific correspondence group. It is concluded that pattern detection training more readily fosters those abilities that allow students to independently induce sound/symbol correspondences than the traditional approach of direct teaching of specific correspondences.     

音乐训练与抑制控制的关系：来自ERPs的证据

抑制控制是人类非常重要的认知功能之一,它对个体适应环境具有重要的意义。本研究将抑制控制细分为反应抑制和冲突控制,采用Go/No-go和Stroop任务从行为和脑电层面,考察了音乐训练与抑制控制能力的关系及其认知神经机制。结果发现:在行为指标上,音乐训练组比控制组的Stroop干扰效应更小,但两组被试在Go/No-go任务表现上没有差异。在脑电指标上,在Go/No-go任务中音乐训练组的N2差异波和P3差异波波幅(No-go减Go条件)显著大于控制组,在Stroop任务中音乐训练组的N450差异波波幅(不一致减一致条件)也显著大于控制组,但两组被试的SP差异波波幅(不一致减一致条件)无显著差异。结果表明:音乐训练组被试在反应抑制任务中可能具有更强的冲突监控和运动抑制能力,在冲突控制任务中也具有更强的冲突监控能力。本研究从电生理的层面反映了音乐训练与抑制控制能力的提升具有一定的关联。     

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) recognize spatial and object correspondences between a scale model and its referent

In the present study, the contributions of spatial and object features to chimpanzees' comprehension of scale models were examined. Seven chimpanzees that previously demonstrated the ability to use a scale model as an information source for the location of a hidden item were tested under conditions manipulating the feature correspondence and spatial-relational correspondence between objects in the model and an outdoor enclosure. In Experiment 1, subjects solved the task under two conditions in which one object cue (color or shape) was unavailable, but positional cues remained. Additionally, performance was above chance under a third condition in which both types of object cues, but not position cues, were available. In Experiment 2, 2 subjects solved the task under a condition in which shape and color object cues were simultaneously unavailable. The results suggest that, much like young children, chimpanzees are sensitive to both object and spatial-relational correspondences between a model and its referent.     

Eye gaze as a means of giving and seeking information during musical interaction

During skilled music ensemble performance, a multi-layered network of interaction processes allows musicians to negotiate common interpretations of ambiguously-notated music in real-time. This study investigated the conditions that encourage visual interaction during duo performance. Duos recorded performances of a new piece before and after a period of rehearsal. Mobile eye tracking and motion capture were used in combination to map uni- and bidirectional eye gaze patterns. Musicians watched each other more during temporally-unstable passages than during regularly-timed passages. They also watched each other more after rehearsal than before. Duo musicians may seek visual interaction with each other primarily, but not exclusively, when coordination is threatened by temporal instability. Visual interaction increases as musicians become familiar with the piece, suggesting that they visually monitor each other once a shared interpretation of the piece is established. Visual monitoring of co-performers’ movements and attention may facilitate feelings of engagement and high-level creative collaboration.     

Performance of musical rhythm in 3/4 and 6/8 meter

Monophonic performances of 15 melodies in 3/4 or 6/8 meter were analyzed according to previously described methods (Bengtsson & Gabrielsson, 1980) to test the hypothesis that live performance of musical rhythm is characterized by various systematic variations (SYVAR) as regards the duration of the sound events in relation to strict mechanical regularity. The results show many different types of SYVAR, varying with music and/or performers but with certain recurring features. at the sound event level as well as at the beat, half-measure and measure levels. It is pointed out that these results should be supplemented by data in other performance variables, and that there probably are certain basic relationships between SYVAR and different aspects of the rhythm response to be further investigated.     

Musical space synesthesia: Automatic,explicit and conceptual connections between musical stimuli and space

In musical–space synesthesia, musical pitches are perceived as having a spatially defined array. Previous studies showed that symbolic inducers (e.g., numbers, months) can modulate response according to the inducer’s relative position on the synesthetic spatial form. In the current study we tested two musical–space synesthetes and a group of matched controls on three different tasks: musical–space mapping, spatial cue detection and a spatial Stroop-like task. In the free mapping task, both synesthetes exhibited a diagonal organization of musical pitch tones rising from bottom left to the top right. This organization was found to be consistent over time. In the subsequent tasks, synesthetes were asked to ignore an auditory or visually presented musical pitch (irrelevant information) and respond to a visual target (i.e., an asterisk) on the screen (relevant information). Compatibility between musical pitch and the target’s spatial location was manipulated to be compatible or incompatible with the synesthetes’ spatial representations. In the spatial cue detection task participants had to press the space key immediately upon detecting the target. In the Stroop-like task, they had to reach the target by using a mouse cursor. In both tasks, synesthetes’ performance was modulated by the compatibility between irrelevant and relevant spatial information. Specifically, the target’s spatial location conflicted with the spatial information triggered by the irrelevant musical stimulus. These results reveal that for musical–space synesthetes, musical information automatically orients attention according to their specific spatial musical-forms. The present study demonstrates the genuineness of musical–space synesthesia by revealing its two hallmarks—automaticity and consistency. In addition, our results challenge previous findings regarding an implicit vertical representation for pitch tones in non-synesthete musicians.     

Dichotic recognition of musical canons: Effects of leading ear and time lag between ears

A musical canon consists of two melodic lines with the second part copying the first exactly after some time delay. Right-handed adults listened to canons presented dichotically at time delays between the ears of 2, 4, and 8 sec. Presentation rate varied from 1.0 to 4.4 notes/sec in one part. Different groups of subjects heard the canons with the left or the right ear leading. The subject’s task was to tell whether a given stimulus was a canon or not. Control stimuli were noncanons by the same composer. Musically experienced subjects performed better at the task than inexperienced subjects. Short time lags were easier than long, and the effect of lag was more pronounced with the right ear leading. In the light of previous evidence of functional ear asymmetry in music perception, these results suggest that whenever possible subjects use a strategy of selecting out small chunks of the lead-ear melody for short-term memory storage and later comparison with the trailing melody. The auditory system processing information from the right ear is especially good at focusing on small chunks. But this strategy is particularly vulnerable to time lag; hence the interaction of lead ear and time lag.     

Change detection in multi-voice music: the role of musical structure, musical training, and task demands

This study evaluated the relationship between primitive and scheme-driven grouping (A. S. Bregman, 1990) by comparing the ability of different listeners to detect single note changes in 3-voice musical compositions. Primitive grouping was manipulated by the use of 2 distinctly different compositional styles (homophony and polyphony). The effects of scheme-driven processes were tested by comparing performance of 2 groups of listeners (musicians and nonmusicians) and by varying task demands (integrative and selective listening). Following previous studies, which had tested only musically trained participants, several variables were manipulated within each compositional style. The results indicated that, although musicians demonstrated a higher sensitivity to changes than did nonmusicians, the 2 groups exhibited similar patterns of sensitivity under a variety of conditions.