Worldviews in Foreign Policy: Realism, Liberalism, and External Conflict

International relations studies have been unable to determine whether realist or liberal theories better fit state behavior in various situations, possibly because these studies have attributed motive and action to the states rather than to the decision-makers within them. This article develops a new, more direct approach to resolving this problem. Hypotheses were tested regarding conditions under which decision-makers are likely to articulate a problem representation consistent with liberal or realist elements of a worldview. This was done by content analysis of statements about 36 foreign conflicts by the governments of three "bystander" nations—the United States, Canada, and India—over a 16-year period. The findings indicate that systemic and situational factors are far more important than domestic factors. States tend to represent wars in congruence with liberalism primarily when their security is already assured by another power or when the conflict does not involve allies, rivals, or fellow democracies. Thus, most of the expectations of realism are supported at the psychological level.     

Redefining Cultural Diplomacy: Cultural Security and Foreign Policy in Canada

A content analysis of material generated by the 1994–1995 foreign policy review process in Canada was conducted in an effort to understand how culture came to be officially constituted as the third pillar of Canadian foreign policy. The analysis showed significant differences among actors in terms of modes of legitimization of cultural diplomacy. State agents, by refusing to consider culture as a referent object in a broadened notion of security and by assimilating it into a system of civic values, resisted pressures from academics and groups that favored introducing societal conceptions of culture as relevant for the making of foreign policy. The result is nevertheless a new, albeit defensive and still ambiguous, form of implication of foreign policy in the cultural mission of the state in Canada.     

Impact of the Political Context on Foreign Policy Decision-Making

One of the most pressing concerns in the study of international relations today is to develop a systematic account of the impact of domestic politics on foreign policy. This paper argues that domestic politics frequently influences foreign policy through a process of decision-making that grows out of the decision-maker's awareness of the requirements for effective action in the political context. It is therefore necessary to develop a theory that can explain how the political context's characteristic features affect decision-makers' thinking. In attempting to combine insights culled from the literature on political decision-making with psychological theories of decision-making processes, this paper offers a first step toward such a theory.     

Extending the Three- and Four-Headed Eagles: The Foreign Policy Orientations of American Elites During the 80s and 90s

With the breakdown of the foreign policy consensus of the Cold War years, there has been a resurgence in examining the beliefs of the public and their role in U.S. foreign policy. The most extensive of these studies has been conducted by Holsti and Rosenau who have found first three and then four competing schools of thought. Our purpose is to build off Holsti and Rosenau's analyses and extend their argument. Research based on the content analysis of foreign policy and national opinion journals from 1980 to 1989 demonstrates that there is more diversity and complexity in the range and content of beliefs held by American leaders than Holsti and Rosenau have yet been able to capture through their "three-" and "four-headed eagles." Although the three-headed eagle serves as a useful scheme for categorizing the broad foreign policy perspectives of American leaders, it de-emphasizes important differences in beliefs and ignores at least two foreign policy orientations that exist within their general categories. This is not a mere academic exercise, for it sheds light on the level of diversity and complexity of elite beliefs, which enriches an understanding of the politics of U.S. foreign policy since Vietnam. A preliminary examination of foreign policy and national opinion journals from 1990 to 1994 indicates that American elites are changing and adapting while at the same time, they are absorbing profound global changes into their prevailing belief systems, as predicted by the political psychological literature. This suggests that the diversity and complexity present in the 80s is likely to persist and grow throughout the 90s. Our research also suggests the importance of developing alternative methods to complement reliance on survey research in order to capture more fully the diversity and complexity of the foreign policy beliefs of Americans.     

Culture and Japanese Citizen Influence on the Transboundary Air Pollution Issue in Northeast Asia

This paper outlines a general approach for analyzing the role of culture in international environmental policymaking. It draws on work in anthropology and foreign policy analysis. The first step is to view culture as a “toolkit of environmental ideas.” The second step, relative to a given research topic, is to delimit broad definitions of culture to more workable forms. Three forms are offered (following Hudson, 1997a): culture as organization of environmental meaning, as shared value preferences in environmental matters, and as templates for environmental action. The third step is to answer three basic questions relative to the specific definition of culture used: (a) Who draws what environmentally related ideas from the ideas toolkit? (b) How are these ideas used in the political arena? (c) How do these ideas, originally drawn upon for political purposes, change and in turn lead to changes in the set of environmentally related ideas in the culture? Ideas, once they have entered the political arena, are assumed to be embodied in a “discourse.” The terminology of discourse (and the body of theory built up around it) is used as a vehicle for examining the role of culture in international environmental policymaking. A practical application of this approach is presented in relation to the role of culture in the Japanese public's influence in Japan on policymaking on the northeast Asian transboundary air pollution issue.     

Cultural Similarity, Foreign Policy Actions, and Regime Perception: An Experimental Study of International Cues and Democratic Peace

This study examines previous explanations of democratic peace in light of sociocultural factors and foreign policy actions that influence public perceptions of another country. Two experiments assessed the effects of relevant sociocultural and foreign policy action cues on perception of the regime type of a target nation and on public approval of the use of force. The findings suggest that sociocultural cues affect regime perception. Moreover, perceived similarity of a target nation and foreign policy actions are significant determinants of the public approval of the use of force in addition to perceptions of regime type.     

Framing Foreign Policy Alternatives in the Inner Circle: President Carter, His Advisors, and the Struggle for the Arms Control Agenda

This article examines strategic framing efforts within the president's inner circle of foreign policy advisors. The comparative case study method is used to describe and explain the framing process involved in President Jimmy Carter's arms control decisions with respect to the Soviet Union. Carter's two central foreign policy advisors, National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski and Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, portrayed the Soviets in very different terms. The premise underlying this study is that advisors attempt to frame their policy preferences favorably in order to influence the group process and the president's policy choice. Advisors do so by playing up the positive aspects of an option and downplaying any negative aspects. Three components of the framing process are explored: historical/cultural symbolism, personal beliefs and values, and political cost assessments.     

Temperament and Vulnerability to Psychopathology: Introduction to the Special Section

Several authors have highlighted associations with temperament as promising avenues for understanding vulnerability to psychopathology (e.g., Muris and Ollendick, Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 271–289, 2005; Nigg, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 47, 395–422, 2006). The successful integration of models of temperament and models of psychopathology will undoubtedly increase our understanding of both. The current special section intends to present important new ideas and evidence in this field and tries to formulate answers to a couple of emerging questions. To set the stage for the papers, we provide a brief state of the art of research on temperament—psychopathology associations. After that, we discuss emerging questions in the field, some of which are addressed in the papers of this special section. To conclude, we point out a couple of future research perspectives.     

Interests and Neonates: There Is More to the Story than We Explicitly Acknowledge

Although there are many different moral arguments concerning the use of Best Interests in neonatal decision-making, there seems in practice a firm commitment to application of the concept. And yet, there is still little reflection given by practitioners about what employing a Best Interest determination means in infant care. The following lays out a comprehensive taxonomy of interest-sources in order to provide for more robust considerations of what constitutes best interests of/for neonates.     

More Than Peaks and Valleys: Introduction to the Special Issue on Typical and Maximum Performance

Studies on the effect of enforced waiting periods in human-computer interac- tion caused by system response times (SRTs) have shown that work style and psychophysiological stress level are markedly influenced by the mean SRT length but hardly by SRT variability, although the latter is supposed to induce temporal uncertainty which is well known as a potent stressor. Hence, this study tests the hypothesis that temporal uncertainty can be induced by SRTs without any variability when their duration is so large that the user cannot ac- curately anticipate the next work step because of his or her limited temporal sensitivity. Reaction time (RT) measures on simulated system breakdowns show that accuracy of temporal anticipation of the next work step under SRTs between 2 and 8 sec is much worse than results of psychophysical stud- ies on time perception would predict, and deteriorates deviating from Weber's Law when SRT length exceeds 6 sec. Completion time of work steps, varied as a second factor, shows no significant main effects on predictability. The result suggests that predictability of work flow is markedly affected by long SRTs leading to changes in work style as shown by performance measures.     

What Is the Word on Self-Motives and Social Perception: Introduction to the Special Issue

Although social, personality, and developmental psychologists have focused on the determinants, processes, and outcomes of social perception on the one hand and self-perception on the other, they have only occasionally explored the relations between the two. In this introduction, I explain how this special issue is designed to explore the links between self- and social perception. In particular, I suggest that perceptions of self and the social world are intrinsically linked because each are influenced by the exact same self-motives, such as the desire to achieve beneficial outcomes for the self, or to maintain the psychic benefits of a positive self-image. Each in its own way, the articles that comprise this special issue illustrate this basic link between the self- and social perception.     

School-Based Mental Health Programs and Services: Overview and Introduction to the Special Issue

School-based mental health (SBMH) programs and services have grown progressively in the United States in the past two decades, related in part to increased recognition of their advantages and heightened federal support. However, SBMH is an emerging field, with many issues needing attention. This introductory article provides a context for the special issue by highlighting the importance of increased conceptual clarity about SBMH, enhanced mental health—education systems integration, and advancement of the SBMH research base. Key elements for success of SBMH programs and services are discussed, as underscored recently by the report of the New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003) and other important initiatives. These elements include (a) school–family–community agency partnerships, (b) commitment to a full continuum of mental health education, mental health promotion, assessment, problem prevention, early intervention, and treatment, and (c) services for all youth, including those in general and special education. A synopsis of the articles in the special issue is provided, emphasizing their conceptual and empirical contributions to delivery and sustainability of effective mental health practices in schools.     

Professionalism,Ethics, and Value‐Based Conflicts in Counseling: An Introduction to the Special Section

This introduction to this special section of the Journal of Counseling & Development explores the importance of a code of ethics to the establishment and maintenance of a profession. Recognizing a code of ethics as a communication of a profession's collective values and expectations, the editors of this special section acknowledge the dilemmas that arise when a counselor's personal values do not align with the profession's collective values. The authors of each article address value‐based conflicts in counseling.     

More Catholic than Rome; more reformed than Geneva: Joseph P. Cassidy and possibilities for renewal in the Church of England

This article traces the integration of theology, spirituality and ethics in the work of Dr Joseph P. Cassidy from his life as a Jesuit, then as a priest of the Roman Catholic Church and then of the Church of England, as well as the new possibilities his work opened up for re-thinking decision-making both in ecclesial groups and in social and political life, not least re-thinking the importance of the laity.     

自觉与他者——文化人类学对现代中医文化研究的启示

文化人类学最具“反思”精神,20世纪人类学的总特征是“我”和“他者”之间观察关系的改造.中医药文化的现代研究应当引入文化人类学中的“文化自觉”概念,应当在对中医历史传统回溯的基础上,建立现代文化的自我理解和自我价值认同.而文化人类学中“他者”对中医药文化研究提供的是另一种自我观察的方法,包括人的他者、文化的他者和历史的他者.现代中医文化研究可以运用文化人类学中的自我和他者的理念和方法,思考中医学现代性中的定位和发展.