Effects of the Central Executive on Postural Control

The authors focused on individual working memory (WM) capacity and examined its effect on postural control. Participants were 79 young volunteers split into two groups of low- and high WM span, based on scores from the Reading Span Test. The length of unrest was measured in the following conditions: double-leg standing as a single (D-S) task, single-leg standing as a single (S-S) task, double-leg standing as a dual (D-D) task, and single-leg standing as a dual (S-D) task. Regarding inte-group comparisons, total length was prolonged significantly between the low- and the high-span groups but only on the S-D task. The present results revealed that dual-task interference emerged in the low-span group when in a more unstable posture.     

Interstimulus Intervals and Sensory Modality Modulate the Impact of a Cognitive Task on Postural Control

The present literature not only reveals the use of a wide variety of cognitive tasks but variability in their interaction with postural control. The question then arises, as to, whether postural control is sensitive to specific features of a cognitive task. The present experiment assessed the impact of cognitive tasks with interstimulus intervals (ISI) of varied duration and sensory modality on postural control in young adults. Seventeen participants (23.71 ± 1.99 years old) were instructed to stand on a force platform while concurrently performing cognitive tasks with ISIs of two and 5 s. The tasks were presented both, auditorily and visually. The visual tasks consisted of counting the total occurrence of a single digit. The auditory tasks consisted of counting the total occurrence of a single letter. Performing the cognitive tasks with an ISI of 2 s resulted only in an increase in the anteroposterior mean power frequency. Presenting the tasks visually also significantly reduced area of 95% confidence ellipse and AP and mediolateral sway variability. These results may suggest that ISIs can modify postural performance by altering the allocation of attentional focus. Also, presenting tasks using a visual sensory modality appears to yield lower postural sway.     

聋童执行功能发展：聋童与正常儿童的比较

利用标准Dimensional Change Card Sort任务(DCCS),对76名智力正常的3~8岁聋童和78名3~5.5岁的正常儿童进行了对比测试,旨在考察聋童执行功能发展的年龄特征与发展水平。结果发现,3岁组的聋童和正常儿童在DCCS任务上的表现没有显著性差异,但正常儿童在4~4.5岁时进入一个迅速发展期,而聋童要在6岁时才有快速的发展,到7岁后才相当于正常儿童5岁的发展水平,大约滞后2年。研究认为,造成聋童执行功能发展滞后的原因主要有：（1）语言符号系统和聋童特有的符号系统之间可能存在的差异;（2）聋童可能存在计划和灵活性的缺陷;（3）聋童可能存在命名和标识策略上的困难和注意机制的缺陷。结合关于聋童心理理论发展滞后于正常儿童7年以上的报道,心理理论发展和执行功能发展在聋童身上表现出较大的不一致性。     

3～5岁幼儿执行功能的发展

该研究在两种理论背景下,探讨了3~5 岁幼儿执行功能年龄发展特征。通过运用8种不同的执行功能任务,结果发现,从3 岁到4 岁是幼儿执行功能发展的重要时期;但执行功能的不同类型在发展的趋势上有所不同,表现为:抑制控制及“热”执行功能的发展主要在3~4 岁之间,而计划控制和“冷”执行功能在3~5岁期间都有显著的发展。     

Continuous Cognitive Tasks Improve Postural Control Compared to Discrete Cognitive Tasks

Research suggests that postural control synergies are sensitive to cognitive manipulations; however, the impact of different types of cognitive tasks on postural control remains inconclusive. The authors examined the effect of discrete and continuous tasks on postural control. Sixteen healthy young adults (M age = 22.7 ± 2.2 years) stood with feet together on a force platform while performing randomly assigned discrete and continuous cognitive tasks. Results demonstrated marked improvements in the area of 95% confidence ellipse and the standard deviation of the center of pressure in the anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions for continuous compared to discrete tasks. This reinforces the notion that continuous tasks are sufficient in providing less opportunity to consciously attend to postural control, thereby facilitating automatic postural control.     

抑制性控制在幼儿执行功能与心理理论中的作用

将执行功能任务和心理理论任务中的共同成分——抑制性控制区分为3个不同的难度水平,从而构成心理理论任务（错误信念）的3个变式A1、A2、A3和执行功能任务（白天/黑夜）的3个变式B1、B2、B3。实验1以48名4岁幼儿为被试,探讨对两类任务中各自的3个变式所包含的抑制性控制的难度区分的适当性,结果表明幼儿在两类任务中各自的3个变式上的正确率差异显著,说明其抑制性控制的确表现出了高、中、低3个不同的难度水平;实验2根据实验1所设计的两类任务,以144名3~6岁幼儿为被试,探讨了不同抑制性控制的难度水平在幼儿执行功能和心理理论的相关中的作用,结果表明抑制性控制的难度水平是影响幼儿执行功能与心理理论的相关的一个重要因素。     

执行功能与心理理论关系的元分析:抑制控制和灵活转换的作用

心理理论的发展对个体社会化具有重要意义。研究通过元分析的方法,表明执行功能能够有效预测个体心理理论的发展水平(r=0.37,p0.001),且具有跨文化和跨人群的稳定性;同时,在个体的毕生发展中,执行功能均与心理理论存在显著相关,证明了执行功能的表达说;但在不同的发展阶段(Q1=411.75,p10.001,df1=90;Q2=219.49,p20.001,df2=50),心理理论的发展会受到执行功能不同成分的影响:0~3岁时抑制控制起关键作用;3~12岁时,心理理论受到抑制控制和灵活转换的共同影响;青春期阶段,灵活转换的作用明显;而到了成年期,抑制控制与灵活转换均会对心理理论产生积极影响。     

认知任务对直立姿势的视觉控制的影响

为揭示认知任务对直立姿势的视觉控制的影响, 本研究采用双重任务的方法, 要求18名健康的成年被试在4种条件(2认知条件×2视觉条件)下尽力保持直立姿势的稳定。姿势动摇的测量采用头顶拍摄的方法并计算误差均方根、平均速度以及Romberg商数。研究结果显示认知任务和视觉条件之间的交互作用显著, 而且当有认知任务时姿势动摇的Romberg商数显著降低。这些结果说明认知任务抑制了直立姿势控制过程中的视觉加工。     

The Relations Between Patterning,Executive Function,and Mathematics

Patterning, or the ability to understand patterns, is a skill commonly taught to young children as part of school mathematics curricula. It seems likely that some aspects of executive function, such as cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and working memory, may be expressed in the patterning abilities of children. The primary objective of the present study was to examine the relationship between patterning and executive functioning for first grade children. In addition, the relations between patterning, executive functioning, mathematics, and reading were examined. The results showed that patterning was significantly related to cognitive flexibility and working memory, but not to inhibition. Patterning, cognitive flexibility, and working memory were significantly related to mathematical skills. Only patterning and working memory were significantly related to reading. Regression analyses and structural equation modeling both showed that patterning had effects on both reading and mathematics measures, and that the effects of cognitive flexibility were entirely mediated by patterning. Working memory had independent effects on reading and mathematics, and also effects moderated by patterning. In sum, these findings suggest that cognitive flexibility and working memory are related to patterning and express their effects on reading and mathematics in whole or in part through patterning.     

The Vigilance,Orienting, and Executive Attention Networks in 4-Year-Old Children

The present study examined the development of lower and higher order forms of attention during the preschool years. Lower forms of attention were assessed with tasks that primarily engaged the attention functions of vigilance and orienting. Higher, executive forms of attention were assessed with tasks that involved inhibition and working memory. The findings revealed that performance improved significantly with age on measures of inhibition and orienting. Results are discussed in the context of the development of attentional networks.     

论执行功能及其发展研究

执行功能(executive function,EF)是一个还没有明确定义的概念,但又是一个重要的概念,通常是指个体对思想和行动进行有意识控制的心理过程。目前的主要观点包括神经心理学观点、抑制控制理论、高级认知能力理论(包括工作记忆理论、抑制及工作记忆理论)和认知复杂性和控制理论。主要的研究任务类型包括卡片分类任务、延迟反应任务、基于Stroop任务的冲突反应模式任务、心理理论任务、问题解决任务、“热”执行功能任务等。未来的研究应着重弄清执行功能的本质,结合认知神经科学阐明其与脑神经结构和功能的关系,并从区分“冷”执行功能和“热”执行功能的角度,探讨以情感激活为特点的“热认知”在执行功能中的作用。     

基于中央执行功能的儿童工作记忆可塑性机制

近期的研究发现儿童的工作记忆能力具有一定的可塑性。研究者采用双盲对照实验设计, 通过改编的工作记忆广度、N-back、活动记忆和GO-NOGO等任务对15岁以下的正常儿童和特殊儿童(多动症、智力低下等)的工作记忆能力进行训练, 训练的周期一般为15~30天不等, 每天训练时长约15~25分钟。研究结果发现, 工作记忆训练不仅可以提高儿童的工作记忆能力, 而且还可以迁移至其它高级认知功能(流体智力、数学能力等), 甚至可以改善多动症儿童的临床症状。研究者还发现这种训练效应可以保持3~6个月。通过工作记忆中央执行功能的训练, 是否可以促进儿童认知功能的发展？儿童认知功能的可塑性表现为短暂的提高还是促进认知发展？中央执行功能的训练如何影响儿童认知加工过程的发展？这些问题的回答对于近一步探索认知活动和认知神经的可塑性具有一定的理论意义。可以为工作记忆缺陷儿童的临床干预和治疗提供有效的工具, 具有实践意义。     

执行功能与精神分裂症

执行功能障碍是精神分裂症最重要的认知功能障碍,与精神分裂症其它方面的障碍有着密不可分的关系。文章在相关的认知神经心理学和临床研究的基础上,分别综述了精神分裂症执行功能障碍的特点、研究方法、相关脑机制,执行功能与注意、记忆等一般认知功能间的关系,执行功能与精神症状间的联系及其在诊断、康复、判断预后方面的作用等。对精神分裂症执行功能障碍的认识有助于更深入地理解其病因机制,并有利于临床评价与防治     

姿势－认知双任务研究述评

姿势与认知的双任务研究将两个分离的主题联系起来,成为一个新的正在扩展的领域。大量实验证据揭示了认知在平衡控制中的作用,表明了姿势与认知普遍关联的事实;较多的临床研究初步揭示了有特定类型神经病理的老年人在认知影响下其动作控制问题的机制。姿势-认知双任务研究为老年人跌倒预防和干预训练提供了重要借鉴,为理解儿童注意问题及其学习环境建设提供了新的视角,并提示后继的研究者应对姿势控制与认知发展的关系予以关注     

数学学习困难初中生的中央执行系统特点

为揭示数学学习困难学生的认知过程加工特点,筛选上海111名初中生（男生46名,女生68名,平均年龄11.97岁）比较数学困难学生（55名）与数学优秀学生（56名）的中央执行系统的表现差异,通过反应停止任务和Flanker任务考察抑制能力以及注意控制能力。结果发现各种抑制和注意控制条件下,数困组学生的正确率低于数优组;在具有干扰的情况的成绩更能有效预测数学成绩;中央执行系统能力在初中总体具有上升发展趋势,数困生的发展具有波动性。因此,数学学习困难在中央执行系统中的缺损主要是对抗干扰的能力不足,而非简单的加工速度。     

执行功能中认知灵活性发展的研究进展

近十多年以来,执行功能已成为研究的热点和前沿。认知灵活性是执行功能的主要成分,它对个体能力发展和对环境适应的方面起着重要作用。该文从认知灵活性的本质、发展、研究方法及其与教育的关系进行探讨。     

Attention Is Required to Coordinate Reaching and Postural Stability during Upper Limb Movements Generated While Standing

Abstract

In the present study we investigated how attention contributes to the interaction between reach planning and execution, and postural control. Reaching movements were generated while standing and were performed either in isolation or in conjunction with a secondary reaction time (RT) task. In addition, to better understand how online movement control is affected by this interaction, the reaching movements could be unexpectedly perturbed medial-laterally. Postural kinetic, arm kinematic and RT, and secondary RT measures were used to characterize the responses. Results indicate task performance worsened when both the reaching and secondary tasks were completed simultaneously. Our results imply the generation of reaching movements while standing requires attentional resources to properly coordinate the interaction between the reaching task and postural control.     

3~6岁儿童执行功能子成分发展的研究

执行功能是对目标指向活动进行信息整合和控制调节的一系列认知能力,在学前期发展迅速。研究使用执行功能任务组软件考察了210名3~6岁儿童（6组,组间年龄跨度6个月）执行功能各子成分（工作记忆、抑制控制和认知灵活性）的发展特征。结果表明：（1）随年龄增长,3~6岁儿童执行功能呈上升趋势发展,4岁左右为抑制控制与认知灵活性的高速发展期;（2）执行功能各子成分发展不同步,抑制控制最快,工作记忆最慢;（3）各子成分间呈中度正相关。结论：3~6岁执行功能能力发展迅速,但各子成分的发展进程并不一致;幼儿阶段执行功能测试的年龄分组最好精确到6个月。     

不同年级学生执行功能发展水平研究

工作记忆、抑制控制及认知灵活性是执行功能的主要成分。以小学三年级、五年级,初中二年级、高中二年级320名学生为被试,研究了他们执行功能各成分的发展。结果发现:工作记忆广度、抑制控制、认知灵活性的发展随着年级(或年龄)的增长而发展,各年级之间存在显著差异。     

Executive Function: The Search for an Integrated Account

ABSTRACT— In general, executive function can be thought of as the set of abilities required to effortfully guide behavior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations. Psychologists are interested in expanding the understanding of executive function because it is thought to be a key process in intelligent behavior, it is compromised in a variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders, it varies across the life span, and it affects performance in complicated environments, such as the cockpits of advanced aircraft. This article provides a brief introduction to the concept of executive function and discusses how it is assessed and the conditions under which it is compromised. A short overview of the diverse theoretical viewpoints regarding its psychological and biological underpinnings is also provided. The article concludes with a consideration of how a multilevel approach may provide a more integrated account of executive function than has been previously available.