A Multivariate Analysis of the Revised Conners' Teacher Rating Scale with Low-Income, Urban Preschool Children

The present investigation addressed the utility of the revised Conners' Teachers Rating Scale (CTRS-28) with low-income urban preschool children. CTRS-28 ratings for a large sample of preschool children from an urban Head Start program were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. Analyses yielded a 3-factor structure: Conduct problems, Hyperactivity, and Passivity. Further analyses cross-validated this structure for males and females and supported its integrity. Multimethod, multisource validity analyses substantiated the CTRS-28 dimensions. The Play Disruption factor of the parent and teacher Penn Interactive Peer Play Scales (PIPPS) provided convergent validity for the Conduct and Hyperactivity factors of the CTRS-28, whereas the Play Interaction factor revealed divergent validity. The Play Disconnection factor of the PIPPS validated the CTRS-28 Passivity factor. The Q-Sort Emotional Regulation scale provided divergent validity for the Conduct and Hyperactivity factors and likewise the Q-Sort Autonomy scale provided divergent validity for the Passivity factor. Age and sex differences were assessed across the 3 factors of the derived preschool structure. A main effect was found for sex and age indicating that boys displayed higher levels of Hyperactivity and Passivity problems than girls did. Similarly, 4-year-old children demonstrated higher levels of Passivity problems than did 5-year-old children.     

Long-Term Follow-Up of Children with Mental Retardation/Borderline Intellectual Functioning and ADHD

Fifty-two children (ages 7 to 14 years) with moderate mental retardation to borderline intellectual functioning were recontacted 12 to 65 months following participation in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of methylphenidate (MPH). Sixty-nine percent of subjects continued to be prescribed medication for behavior control at follow-up. While 72% of the sample evidenced improvement, over two-thirds continued to be rated at or above the 98th percentile on the Hyperactivity Index of the Parent Conners. In fact, 22% of subjects had received inpatient psychiatric treatment between the time of the initial MPH trial and follow-up. Finally, subjects with high initial ratings on the Parent Conners Conduct Problems scale were more likely to be suspended from school or receive inpatient psychiatric treatment than subjects with low initial ratings. The results suggested that children with ADHD and mental retardation or borderline intellectual functioning continued to exhibit significant symptoms associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) at follow-up and that early conduct problems were predictive of continuing behavioral difficulties.     

Use of the Conners-Wells' Adolescent Self-Report Scale: Short Form with Psychiatric Outpatients

To provide information about the psychometric properties of the Conners-Wells' Adolescent Self-Report Scale: Short Form (CASS:S; C. K. Conners, 1997), the CASS:S was administered to 110 (46%) female and 130 (54%) male psychiatric outpatients between 13 and 17 years old. The coefficient s for the CASS:S Conduct Problems, Cognitive Problems, Hyperactivity, and ADHD Index scales were, respectively, .73, .80, .84, and .80. An exploratory maximum-likelihood factor analysis of the 18 item ratings from the Conduct, Cognitive, and Hyperactive scales identified two positively correlated dimensions; one was composed of the six items from the Conduct scale, and the other was composed of the 12 items from the Cognitive and the Hyperactive scales. The results were discussed as supporting the clinical utility of the CASS:S.     

Parent and Teacher Ratings of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Preschool: The ADHD Rating Scale-IV Preschool Version

Efforts for early identification and intervention for children with AD/HD have necessitated the development of rating scales of behavior for the preschool population. The standardization, reliability, and validity data were presented for the ADHD Rating Scale-IV Preschool Version. Parent and teacher ratings were collected on 902 and 977 children 3 to 5 years of age, respectively. Raw scores for the Inattention, Hyperactivity/Impulsivity and Total scores were converted to T-Scores and percentile ranks. Reliability coefficients ranged from 0.80 to 0.95 indicating good test–retest reliability. Concurrent validity with the Conners Teacher Rating Scales: Revised-Short and Conners Parent Rating Scale: Revised-Short ranged from 0.54 to 0.96. The ADHD-Rating Scale-IV appears to be a reliable, valid and user friendly measure for screening preschoolers with behavior problems. Future research is needed to validate its widespread use as a screening and diagnostic tool.     

Risk for Injury in Preschoolers: Relationship to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Parental ratings of preschoolers’ risk for injury, direct assessment of preschoolers’ behavior thought related to risk for injury (e.g., Inattention, impulsivity) and number of documented injuries were examined in preschoolers with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and their non-ADHD peers (Control). Of preschoolers with ADHD, 58.3% exhibited behavior which placed them at-risk for physical injury (0% Control), and their performance was significantly poorer on clinic-based tests. Nonetheless, preschoolers with ADHD did not actually sustain significantly more injuries which warranted medical treatment in an emergency department. Although preschoolers with ADHD may be at increased risk for minor injuries, further research is needed to determine whether they more frequently sustain more serious injuries.     

Agreement Between Parent and Teacher Ratings of Disruptive Behavior Disorders in Children with Clinically Diagnosed ADHD

This study investigated the agreement between parent and teacher ratings of DSM-IV symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and related disorders: Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD). A sample of 55 children in the age range of 6–12 years with clinically diagnosed ADHD participated in the study. Parents and teachers were asked to complete the Disruptive Behavior Disorder Rating Scale (DBDRS; W. E., Pelham, E. M., Gnagy, K. E., Greenslade, & R. Milich, 1992). No association was found between parent and teacher ratings of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. However, moderate to high levels of agreement were obtained for ratings of symptoms that characterized ODD and CD. The observed low levels of agreement between parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms may be attributed to different perceptions of the problem behavior by parents and teachers, medication effects, or the situation specificity of children's behavior. It is recommended that the diagnostic criterion of symptom pervasiveness for the diagnosis of ADHD be operationalized more clearly.     

Risk for injury in preschoolers: relationship to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Parental ratings of preschoolers' risk for injury, direct assessment of preschoolers' behavior thought related to risk for injury (e.g., Inattention, impulsivity) and number of documented injuries were examined in preschoolers with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and their non-ADHD peers (Control). Of preschoolers with ADHD, 58.3% exhibited behavior which placed them at-risk for physical injury (0% Control), and their performance was significantly poorer on clinic-based tests. Nonetheless, preschoolers with ADHD did not actually sustain significantly more injuries which warranted medical treatment in an emergency department. Although preschoolers with ADHD may be at increased risk for minor injuries, further research is needed to determine whether they more frequently sustain more serious injuries.     

The Adolescent Behavior Checklist: Validation Using Structured Diagnostic Interviews

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the discriminant validity of scores from the Adolescent Behavior Checklist (ABC), a self-report measure of ADHD symptomatology for adolescents ages 11–17 years. Validity was assessed through correlational, univariate, and discriminant function analyses using three groups: (1) adolescents diagnosed with ADHD, (2) adolescents currently experiencing a mood and/or anxiety disorder, and (3) adolescents with no major psychological disorder. Convergent and divergent validity of the ABC factor scores was demonstrated through correlational results with (1) parent and adolescent report of ADHD symptoms during structured psychiatric interviews and (2) scores on questionnaires measuring related and nonrelated constructs. Univariate analyses indicated that the ADHD group obtained significantly higher scores than did the nonclinical adolescents across all ABC factors. Additionally, the ADHD group scored significantly higher than did the psychiatric controls on the following ABC factors: Conduct Problems, Impulsivity/Hyperactivity, and Social Problems. Results from discriminant analyses supported the reliability of ABC scores in correctly classifying participants into groups. Compared to the Youth Self-Report, the ABC was found to be somewhat better at classifying when used in a multiinformant discriminant analysis. Therefore, overall results from the current study suggest that the ABC is a valid and useful self-report screening measure for ADHD symptoms and related difficulties.     

Attention,autonomic arousal,and personality in behaviorally disordered children

This study assessed the construct validity of the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist (RBPC) by measuring attention, autonomie arousal, and personality in 40 behaviorally disordered children aged 7 to 15 years. Conduct Disorder and Socialized Aggression subscales were characterized by high Psychoticism, Impulsivity, and Lie personality scores, by lower heart rate levels, and by more errors on a continuous performance reaction-time task. Conversely, Attention Problems, Anxiety Withdrawal, and Motor Excess were characterized by greater variability in reaction times. Conduct Disorder alone was related to an external locus of control, while only Attention Problems was characterized by low scores on the WISC Freedom from Distraction factor. These differential relationships suggest (a) support for the construct validity of the RBPC, (b) that antisocial behavior and hyperactivity/attention deficits are dissociated disorders, and (c) that hyperactivity/attention deficits may be characterized by fluctuations in the allocation of attentional resources rather than a core structural deficit in attention.     

Teacher Ratings of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Hispanic Children

This study compared teacher's ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in groups of nonreferred Hispanic and non-Hispanic White children via the Teacher Report Form, the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Scales—IV, and the Conners Abbreviated Teacher Rating Scale. A total of 61 non-Hispanic White teachers completed behavior ratings of 61 Hispanic and non-Hispanic White children between 6 and 11 years old. Significant differences were found between boys and girls, with girls showing fewer behavior problems and fewer hyperactive/inattentive symptoms compared to boys. In addition, Hispanics scored similar or lower than non-Hispanic Whites on multiple subscales measuring symptomatology related to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and overall behavioral disorders. In no instance did Hispanic children score as more pathological than non-Hispanic White children. The need to consider the rater's ethnicity is discussed, and findings are explained in terms of childhood socialization patterns that might help to discern the behavior displayed by Hispanic children in classroom settings.     

Parent-Child Interactions Among Low-Income Mexican American Parents and Preschoolers: Do Clinic-Referred Families Differ From Nonreferred Families?

This study compared low-income Mexican American parents of young children referred for behavior problems to their nonreferred counterparts on an observational measure of parent-child interactions. Referred Mexican American parents demonstrated more negative behaviors than their nonreferred counterparts in both nondirective and highly directive situations. However, no differences were found at moderate levels of directiveness. The most and least directive situations in the Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System best differentiated referred from nonreferred Mexican American families, and families differed more in their negative behaviors than positive behaviors. Many of the parenting behaviors that have been found to differ between referred and nonreferred Caucasian families were also observed to differ between their Mexican American counterparts.     

Behavioral and Emotional Problems in Young Preschoolers: Cross-Cultural Testing of the Validity of the Child Behavior Checklist/2-3

The cross-cultural validity of the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 2-3 (CBCL/2-3) was tested in three Dutch samples of children referred to mental health services, from the general population, and from a twin study. Six scales were derived from factor analyses and labeled Oppositional, Aggressive, and Overactive, which constituted a broadband Externalizing grouping; Withdrawn/Depressed and Anxious, which constituted a broadband Internalizing grouping; and Sleep Problems. Internal consistencies of the scales, their test-retest reliabilities, interparent agreement, discriminative power, predictive relations with problem ratings 2 years later, and relations to other instruments designed to measure general development and behavior problems were adequate, and highly comparable to psychometric properties in American samples. It was concluded that across languages and cultures behavioral/emotional problems of young preschoolers may be adequately assessed with the CBCL/2-3.     

Teachers' Ratings of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Decisions for Referral for Services in Taiwan

We examined the relationship between elementary teachers' perceptions and ratings of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms of students and their referral decisions in public schools in Taiwan. One hundred and twenty-one homeroom teachers were randomly selected from six public elementary schools in Taipei County, Taiwan, to participate in the study. The study contained two groups of children, a random sample (n — 478) and a nominated sample (n = 219). Results of the discriminant analyses showed that Chinese teachers' ratings of ADHD could predict group membership as to whether a student had been or might be referred. This study found that, despite the fact that Chinese teachers believed children with scores two standard deviations above the mean had behavior problems, teachers decided not to refer those students. Teachers were more likely to refer children whose scores were three standard deviations above the mean.     

Association between self-concept and body weight, gender, and pubertal development among male and female adolescents

This study examined the effects and interactions of gender, pubertal status, and body weight on the self-concept of 462 young adolescent Australian students from two different schools. All students enrolled in Years 7 and 8 completed the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, which includes several self-concept subscales and ratings of the importance of each subscale. The self-concept subscales ranked as most important by male and female students were Close Friendship, Scholastic Competence, and Job Competence. Females rated their ability to form close friendships significantly higher and of greater importance than did males. Standard body weight was related to students' Physical Appearance subscale scores, with higher weight students having lower self-concept, and postmenarcheal females having the poorest opinion of their physical appearance. Higher body weight males had lower scores on Athletic Competence, Job Competence, and Behavioral Conduct than did other males. Overweight females and normal weight males considered athletic competence to be more important than did other students. Pubertal status was related to students' scores on Athletic Competence, with postpubertal males who were not overweight scoring highest, and on Physical Appearance, with postmenarcheal females having the lowest opinion of their appearance. The mean self-concept score was significantly related to students' standard body weight, and there was an interaction between gender and puberty, with postpubertal males having the highest and postmenarcheal females the lowest self-concept score. The discrepancy score suggested that females felt they had failed to meet their ideal self-concept significantly more than did males. The results suggest that school programs should be implemented to provide exercise and job skill training suitable for all students, especially those who are overweight. These programs, while taking into account students' pubertal status, should aim to improve self-image without resulting in feelings of failure.     

Concordance of teacher-rated and performance-based measures of executive functioning in preschoolers

The most common method used to evaluate child behavior and functioning is rating scales completed by parents and/or teachers. Given that executive functioning (EF) plays a fundamental role in the developing child’s cognitive, behavioral, and social-emotional development, it would be ideal if ratings of EF and performance-based EF measures assess the same construct. However, most studies report a small to negligible association between performance-based measures and ratings of EF. There are few studies investigating this association for preschoolers, and most only include parent ratings. Teachers may be more reliable reporters of EF behaviors due to the higher demand for EF skills in the preschool setting than at home and because teachers may have a better sense of what behaviors are normative. In this study, we reviewed the associations between three EF rating scales completed by teachers on 243 preschool children. Results showed small to moderate correlations with EF measures of inhibition and cognitive flexibility/switching for all three scales, with the strongest associations observed between Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS) Behavioral Regulation subscale and child EF measures. Exploratory multivariate path analyses showed that, after controlling for age, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES), Behavioral Regulation significantly predicted performance-based measures of EF and accounted for incrementally more variance in the models. We conclude that in ideal situations, it is best to measure EF using both rating scales and performance-based measures of EF. The CBRS seems to be a sensitive measure of EF in preschoolers and may be a helpful brief screening tool for use with teachers.     

Normal versus deviant children

The present study investigated differences between referred and nonreferred children and their families on the basis of home and clinic observations and parent questionnaires. Subjects were 28 families with children between 4 and 8 years of age who had been referred to a clinic for actingout behavior and 28 nonreferred controls matched on several variables. Home observation results indicated that referred children showed significantly more deviant behavior and less prosocial behavior than nonreferred children and that their parents emitted more negative and commanding behavior in contrast to the control group. Systematic observation in the clinic revealed significant differences only in parent negativeness and number of commands. Finally, all five factors of the parent attitude questionnaire yielded large and significant differences between groups. There was considerable overlap between groups on all behavior variables but less overlap on the parent attitude measure. Results from a stepwise discriminant analysis classified 90% of referred children and 90% of nonreferred children correctly on the basis of the parent attitude variable alone. Taken together, these results suggest that child behavior is not always the critical variable in referral and stress the importance of multiple assessment procedures for child-family problems when children are referred for treatment.This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH 19633. The authors would like to express their appreciation to Sheila Eyberg and Orin Bolstad, who assisted in the completion of various aspects of this work.     

Stability of children's behavior problems: A 312-year longitudinal study

This study examined the stability of behavior problems in a population of 81 boys and 83 girls from first through fourth grades. For a 6-month interval, the correlations for Conduct, Anxiety-Withdrawal, and Distractibility-Hyperactivity ranged from .60 to .80. For 1-year intervals, the correlations ranged from .34 to .68. The stability of Conduct and Distractibility (which did not differ) was significantly greater than the stability of Anxiety-Withdrawal. Despite moderate to high stability coefficients, classifications (≥ 1.5 SD above the mean) of individual children lacked consistency across rating periods. There were no sex differences in behavior problem stability. Finally, there was significant “drift” in behavior rating scores across time with the direction of drift depending upon the grade of the initial rating as well as the time interval between ratings.     

Hand test AGG and AOS variables: relation with teacher rating of aggressiveness

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which the Hand Test (Wagner, 1983) variables Aggression (AGG) and the Acting Out Score (AOS) were able to differentiate a group of children who were identified as aggressive and referred for psychological assessment by their teachers from a nonreferred, control group. Hand Test scores of 37 children who had consecutive referrals for psychological assessment because of aggressiveness were compared to the Hand Test scores of 37 children, matched on age and sex, from a nonreferred group. Through the use of an analysis of variance, AOS and AGG were found to significantly differentiate between the two groups. Spearman (rho) correlations between AGG and AOS scores with aggressive-referred status were rho = .45, p = .0001, and rho = .32, p = .006, respectively. Also, diagnostic efficiency statistics demonstrated moderate to high overall correct classification rates for AOS > or = 0 and AGG > or = 2 in identifying children in the aggressive-referred group. The results of this study provide support for the validity of the AGG and AOS scores in the assessment of aggressive behavior in children and demonstrate the utility of the Hand Test to identify aggressive tendencies in children.     

A Brief Parent Rating Scale for Assessing Young Children's Adjustment

This report describes the development of the Parent Rating Scale (PRS), a 20-item scale for use by parents in rating the adjustment of young normal children. Based on the responses of 416 parents of urban and suburban 2nd and 3rd grade children, a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation yielded a 4-factor solution accounting for 48.3% in total variance. Low to moderate relationshps were found between PRS scores and teacher, self, and sociometric ratings fo children. PRS total and factor and total scores discriminated clearly between referred and nonreferred children. Suburban children had higher PRS scores than urban children and girls had higher scores than boys.     

Boredom proneness and sleep disorders as predictors of adult attention deficit scores

This study examined the extent to which boredom proneness and sleep disturbances were related to attention deficit scores in college-aged adults. In a sample of 148 college students, Attention scores on the Adult Behavior Checklist were best predicted by Boredom Proneness (BP) subscale scores, which assess one's inability to maintain internal stimulation and feelings of constraint, and scores on the Epworth Daytime Sleepiness Scale and Athens Insomnia Scale (R2 = .57). Hyperactivity scores were best predicted by the BP subscales, which assess one's need for a stimulating environment, the perception of time passing slowly, and feelings of constraint, and the Epworth Scale (R2 = .51). The findings contribute to the understanding of the symptomatology of attention deficit in adults and provide further evidence of the validity of this measure.